Digital photography is a form of photography that uses an array of light sensitive sensors to capture the image focused by the lens, as opposed to an exposure on light sensitive film. The captured image is then stored as a digital file ready for digital processing (colour correction, sizing, cropping, etc.), viewing or printing. Until the advent of such technology, photographs were made by exposing light sensitive photographic film and used chemical photographic processing to develop and stabilize the image. By contrast, digital photographs can be displayed, printed, stored, manipulated, transmitted, and archived using digital and computer techniques, without chemical processing. Digital photography is one of several forms of digital imaging. Digital images are also created by non-photographic equipment such as computer tomography scanners and radio telescopes. Digital images can also be made by scanning conventional photographic images. Image sensors read the intensity of light, and digital memory devices store the digital image information as RGB color space or as raw data. There are two main types of sensors: * dental assistant salary charge-coupled device (CCD) – photocharge is shifted to a central charge-to-voltage converter * CMOS sensors (“Active pixel sensor”) Nearly all digital cameras use built-in and/or removable solid state flash memory. Digital tapeless camcorders that double as a digital still camera use flash memory, discs and internal hard drives. Certain 20th century digital cameras such as the Sony Mavica range used floppy disks and mini-CDs. Except for some linear array type of cameras at the highest-end and simple web cams at the lowest-end, a digital memory device (usually a memory card; floppy disks and CD-RWs are less common) is used for storing images, which may be transferred to a computer later. Digital cameras can take pictures, and may also record sound and video. Some can be used as webcams, some can use the PictBridge standard to connect to a printer without using a computer, and some can display pictures directly on a television set. Similarly, many camcorders can take still photographs, and store them on videotape or on flash memorycards with medical assistant salary the same functionality as digital cameras. The quality of a digital image is a composite of various factors, many of which are similar to those of film cameras. Pixel count (typically listed in megapixels, millions of pixels) is only one of the major factors, though it is the most heavily marketed figure of merit. Digital camera manufacturers advertise this figure because consumers can use it to easily compare camera capabilities. It is not, however, the major factor in evaluating a digital camera for most applications. The processing system inside the camera that turns the raw data into a color-balanced and pleasing photograph is usually more critical, which is why some 4+ megapixel cameras perform better than higher-end cameras. Resolution in pixels is not the only measure of image quality. A larger sensor with the same number of pixels generally produces a better image than a smaller one. One of the most important differences is an improvement in image noise. This is one of the advantages of digital SLR cameras, which Phlebotomy training have larger sensors than simpler cameras of the same resolution. * Lens quality: resolution, distortion, dispersion (see Lens (optics)) * Capture medium: CMOS, CCD, negative film, reversal film etc. * Capture format: pixel count, digital file type (RAW, TIFF, JPEG), film format (135 film, 120 film, 5×4, 10×8). * Processing: digital and / or chemical processing of ‘negative’ and ‘print’. The number of pixels n for a given maximum resolution (w horizontal pixels by h vertical pixels) is the product n = w × h. This yields e. g. 1.92 megapixels (1,920,000 pixels) for an image of 1600 × 1200. The majority of compact as well as some DSLR digital cameras have a 4:3 aspect ratio, i.e. w/h = 4/3.[1] According to Digital Photography Review, the 4:3 ratio is because “computer monitors are 4:3 ratio, old CCD’s always had a 4:3 ratio, and thus digital cameras inherited this aspect ratio.”[1] The pixel count quoted by manufacturers can be misleading as it may not be the number of full-colour pixels. For medical billing job cameras using single-chip image sensors the number claimed is the total number of single-colour-sensitive photosensors, whether they have different locations in the plane, as with the Bayer sensor, or in stacks of three co-located photosensors as in the Foveon X3 sensor. However, the images have different numbers of RGB pixels: Bayer-sensor cameras produce as many RGB pixels as photosensors via demosaicing (interpolation), while Foveon sensors produce uninterpolated image files with one-third as many RGB pixels as photosensors. It is difficult to compare the resolutions based on the megapixel ratings of these two types of sensors, and therefore sometimes subject of dispute.[2] The relative increase in detail resulting from an increase in resolution is better compared by looking at the number of pixels across (or down) the picture, rather than the total number of pixels in the picture area. For example, a sensor of 2560 × 1600 sensor elements is described as “4 megapixels” (2560 × 1600 = 4,096,000). Increasing to 3200 × 2048 increases the pixels in the picture to physician assistant 6,553,600 (6.5 megapixels), a factor of 1.6, but the pixels per cm in the picture (at the same image size) increases by only 1.25 times. A measure of the comparative increase in linear resolution is the square root of the increase in area resolution, i.e., megapixels in the entire image. Practical imaging systems, digital and film, have a limited “dynamic range”: the range of luminosity that can be reproduced accurately. Highlights of the subject that are too bright are rendered as white, with no detail; shadows that are too dark are rendered as black. The loss of detail is not abrupt with film, or in dark shadows with digital sensors: some detail is retained as brightness moves out of the dynamic range. “Highlight burn-out” of digital sensors, however, can be abrupt, and highlight detail may be lost. And as the sensor elements for different colors saturate in turn, there can be gross hue or saturation shift in burnt-out highlights. Some digital cameras can show these blown highlights in the image nono hair removal review, allowing the photographer to re-shoot the picture with a modified exposure. Others compensate for the total contrast of a scene by selectively exposing darker pixels longer. A third technique is used by Fujifilm in its FinePix S3 Pro digital SLR. The image sensor contains additional photodiodes of lower sensitivity than the main ones; these retain detail in parts of the image too bright for the main sensor. High dynamic range imaging (HDR) addresses this problem by increasing the dynamic range of images by either * increasing the dynamic range of the image sensor or * by using exposure bracketing and post-processing the separate images to create a single image with a higher dynamic range. HDR images curtail burn-outs and black-outs. With the acceptable image quality and the other advantages of digital photography (particularly the time pressures of daily newspapers) the majority of professional news photographers capture their images with digital cameras. Digital photography has also been adopted by many amateur snapshot photographers, who take advantage of the convenience of mobile phone deals sending images by email, placing them on the World Wide Web, or displaying them in digital picture frames. The majority of cameras are camera phones integrated into cell phones but their usual small, poor quality lenses and sensors render most of them unsuitable for making even moderate size prints. Some commercial photographers, and some amateurs interested in artistic photography, have been resistant to using digital rather than film cameras because they believe that the image quality available from a digital camera is still inferior to that available from a film camera, and the quality of images taken on medium format film was thought to be impossible to match with a digital camera. Some have expressed a concern that changing computer technology may make digital photographs inaccessible in the future. A related concern in a specialized application is the use of digital photographs in court proceedings, with the added difficulty of demonstrating an image’s authenticity. Some high-end film can also still be projected for viewing at a much higher optical resolution Colorado Springs Realtors than even the best digital projectors. Some professional photographers resist the use of Digital Cameras because they are poor performers when it comes to speed for multiple shots. Storing an 8MP image takes a lot of time and therefore some applications Digital Cameras are not currently appropriate. Other commercial photographers, and many amateurs, have enthusiastically embraced digital photography because they believe that its flexibility and lower long-term costs outweigh its initial price disadvantages. Almost all of the cost of digital photography is capital cost, meaning that the cost is for the equipment needed to store and copy the images, and once purchased requires virtually no further expense outlay. Film photography requires continuous expenditure of funds for supplies and developing, although the equipment itself does not outdate so quickly and has a longer service life. Some commercial photographers have also begun moving to digital technology because of the tremendous editing capabilities now offered on computers. The photographer is able to color-balance and otherwise manipulate the image in ways that traditional darkroom cheap auto insurance techniques cannot offer, or are far more laborious in the darkroom. With fully color-balanced systems from the camera to the monitor to the printer, the photographer can now supply, either as a print or as a computer display, what is actually seen on the photographer’s screen. Film users can use a film scanner, thus mixing the two technologies. Rapid advances in the technologies have resulted in many specialised abbreviations and initialisms being freely used in publications and internet discussions. However, digital cameras require batteries that need to be recharged or replaced frequently, and this means that a photographer needs access to electrical outlets. Digital cameras also tend to be much more sensitive to moisture and extreme cold. For this reason, photographers who work in remote areas may favour film SLR cameras, though many higher-end DSLRs are now equipped with weather-resistant bodies. Medium- and large-format film cameras are also still preferred by publications insisting on the very highest detail and resolution. Digital photography was used in astrophotography long before its use cheap iphone by the general public and had almost completely displaced photographic plates by the early 1980s. CCDs are more sensitive to light than plates, and have a much more uniform and predictable response. The CCDs used in astronomy are similar to those used by the general public, but are generally monochrome. Many of those used in infrared astronomy are cooled with liquid nitrogen so as to reduce the image noise caused by heat. Many astronomical instruments have arrays of many CCDs, sometimes totaling almost a billion pixels. Amateur astronomers also commonly use digital cameras, including the use of webcams for speckle imaging or “video astronomy”. Cameras with digital image sensors that are smaller than the typical 35mm film size has a smaller field or angle of view when used with a lens of the same focal length. This is because angle of view is a function of both focal length and the sensor or film size used. Kids 50mm 100mm.jpg If a sensor smaller than the full-frame 35mm film format is Perfect Weddings Singapore used, such as the use of APS-C-sized digital sensors in DSLRs, then the field of view is cropped by the sensor to smaller than the 35mm full-frame format’s field of view. This narrowing of the field of view is often described in terms of a focal length multiplier or crop factor, a factor by which a longer focal length lens would be needed to get the same field of view on a full-frame camera. If the digital sensor has approximately the same resolution (effective pixels per unit area) as the 35mm film surface (24 x 36 mm), then the result is similar to taking the image from the film camera and cutting it down (cropping) to the size of the sensor. For an APS-C size sensor, this would be a reduction to the center 62.5% of the image. The cheaper, non-SLR models of digital cameras typically use much smaller sensor sizes and the reduction would be greater. If the digital sensor has a higher or lower density of pixels per Singapore wedding unit area than the film equivalent, then the amount of information captured differs correspondingly. While resolution can be estimated in pixels per unit area, the comparison is complex since most types of digital sensor record only a single colour at each pixel location, and different types of film have different effective resolutions. There are various trade-offs involved, since larger sensors are more expensive to manufacture and require larger lenses, while sensors with higher numbers of pixels per unit area are likely to suffer higher noise levels. For these reasons, it is possible to obtain cheap digital cameras with sensor sizes much smaller than 35mm film, but with high pixel counts, that can still produce high-resolution images. Such cameras are usually supplied with lenses that would be classed as extremely wide angle on a 35mm camera, and that can also be smaller size and less expensive, since there is a smaller sensor to illuminate. For example, a camera with a 1/1.8″ sensor has a 5.0x field of view crop, and so bali hotels a hypothetical 5-50mm zoom lens produces images that look similar (again the differences mentioned above are important) to those produced by a 35mm film camera with a 25–250mm lens, while being much more compact than such a lens for a 35mm camera since the imaging circle is much smaller. This can be useful if extra telephoto reach is desired, as a certain lens on an APS sensor produces an image equivalent to a significantly longer lens on a 35mm film camera shot at the same distance from the subject, the equivalent length of which depends on the camera’s field of view crop. This is sometimes referred to as the focal length multiplier, but the focal length is a physical attribute of the lens and not the camera system itself. The disadvantage of this is that wide angle photography is made somewhat more difficult, as the smaller sensor effectively and undesirably reduces the captured field of view. Some methods of compensating for this or otherwise producing much wider digital photographs involve free credit report using a fisheye lens and “defishing” the image in post processing to simulate a rectilinear wide angle lens. Full-frame digital SLRs, that is, those with sensor size matching a frame of 35mm film, include Canon 1Ds and 5D series, Kodak Pro DCS-14n, Nikon D3 line and Contax N Digital. There are very few digital cameras with sensors that can approach the resolution of larger-format film cameras, with the possible exception of the Mamiya ZD (22MP) and the Hasselblad H3D series of DSLRs (22 to 39 MP). Common values for field of view crop in DSLRs include 1.3x for some Canon (APS-H) sensors, 1.5x for Sony APS-C sensors used by Nikon, Pentax and Konica Minolta and for Fujifilm sensors, 1.6 (APS-C) for most Canon sensors, ~1.7x for Sigma’s Foveon sensors and 2x for Kodak and Panasonic 4/3″ sensors currently used by Olympus and Panasonic. Crop factors for non-SLR consumer compact and bridge cameras are larger, frequently 4x or more. Storage for digital cameras has increased in size and technology with time, Ebook Readers from magnetic tape (Steven Sasson’s 1975 prototype) to floppy disks to flash memory. Most digital cameras are built to operate as a self-contained unit. This is especially so at the lower-end, for these cameras usually include zoom lens and flashes that cannot be changed. However, at the highest-end, some digital cameras are nothing but a sophisticated light-sensing unit. Experienced photographers attach these digital “camera backs” to their professional medium format SLR cameras, such as a Mamiya. * Area array o CCD o CMOS * Linear array o CCD (monochrome) o 3-strip CCD with color filters Linear array cameras are also called scan backs. * Single-shot * Multi-shot (three-shot, usually) Scanning and multi-shot camera backs are usually used only in studios to take pictures of still objects. Most earlier digital camera backs used linear array sensors that could take seconds or even minutes for a complete high-resolution scan. The linear array sensor acts like its counterpart in a flatbed image scanner by moving vertically to digitize the image. Many early such Elliptical Machine cameras could only capture grayscale images. To take a color picture, it required three separate scans done with a rotating colored filter. These are called multi-shot backs. Some other camera backs use CCD arrays similar to typical cameras. These are called single-shot backs. Since it is much easier to manufacture a high-quality linear CCD array with only thousands of pixels than a CCD matrix with millions, very high resolution linear CCD camera backs were available much earlier than their CCD matrix counterparts. For example, you could buy an (albeit expensive) camera back with over 7,000 pixel horizontal resolution in the mid-1990s. However, as of 2004[update], it is still difficult to buy a comparable CCD matrix camera of the same resolution. Rotating line cameras, with about 10,000 color pixels in its sensor line, are able, as of 2005[update], to capture about 120,000 lines during one full 360 degree rotation, thereby creating a single digital image of 1,200 Megapixels. Most modern digital camera backs use very large CCD matrices. This eliminates the website laten maken need for scanning. For example, Phase One produces a 39 million pixel digital camera back with a 49.1 x 36.8 mm CCD in 2008. This CCD array is a little smaller than a frame of 120 film and much larger than a 35 mm frame (36 x 24 mm). In comparison, a consumer digital camera usually uses a much smaller 1/2.5 inch or 7.176 x 5.329 mm (~ 1/1.8 inch) CCD sensor. Further, the 1/2.5 or 1/1.8 inch diagonal measurement is the size of the entire CCD chip- the actual photo-sensitive area is much smaller. At present, there are relatively few complete digital SLR cameras with sensors large enough to compete with medium to large format film cameras. Phase One and Mamiya manufacture medium format digital devices that can capture 16MP up to 39MP.[4] The units tend to be quite large and expensive. Additionally, because of their high build quality and lack of moving parts tend to be quite long lasting and are prominent on the used market. Advantages of stop dog barking consumer digital cameras The advantages of digital photography over traditional film include: * Instant review of pictures, with no wait for the film to be developed: if there’s a problem with a picture, the photographer can immediately correct the problem and take another picture * Minimal ongoing costs for those wishing to capture hundreds of photographs for digital uses, such as computer storage and e-mailing, but not printing * If one already owns a newer computer, permanent storage on digital media is considerably cheaper than film * Photos may be copied from one digital medium to another without any degradation * Pictures do not need to be scanned before viewing them on a computer * Ability to print photos using a computer and consumer-grade printer * Ability to embed metadata within the image file, such as the time and date of the photograph, model of the camera, shutter speed, flash use, and other similar items, to aid in the reviewing and sorting of photographs. Film cameras have limited ability to free online dating handle metadata, though many film cameras can “imprint” a date over a picture by exposing the film to an internal LED array (or other device) that displays the date. * Ability to capture and store hundreds of photographs on the same media device within the digital camera; by contrast, a film camera would require regular changing of film (typically after every 24 or 36 shots) * Many digital cameras now include an AV-out connector (and cable) to allow the reviewing of photographs to an audience using a television * Anti-shake functionality (increasingly common in inexpensive cameras) allow taking sharper hand-held pictures where previously a tripod was required * Ability to change ISO speed settings more conveniently in the middle of shooting, for example when the weather changes from bright sunlight to cloudy. In film photography, film must be unloaded and new film with desired ISO speed loaded. * Smaller sensor format, compared to 35mm film frame, allows for smaller lenses, wider zoom ranges, and greater depth of field. * Ability Cheap Contact Lenses to use the same device to capture video as well as still images. * Ability to convert the same photo from color to sepia to black & white [edit] Advantages of professional digital cameras The Golden Gate Bridge retouched for painterly light effects * Immediate image review and deletion is possible; lighting and composition can be assessed immediately, which ultimately conserves storage space. * Faster workflow: Management (colour and file), manipulation and printing tools are more versatile than conventional film processes. However, batch processing of RAW files can be time consuming, even on a fast computer. * Digital manipulation: A digital image can be modified and manipulated much easier and faster than with traditional negative and print methods. The digital image to the right was captured in RAW format, processed and output in 3 different ways from the source RAW file, then merged and further processed for color saturation and other special effects to produce a more dramatic result than was originally captured with the RAW image. Recent manufacturers such coupons as Nikon and Canon have promoted the adoption of digital single-lens reflex cameras (DSLRs) by photojournalists. Images captured at 2+ megapixels are deemed of sufficient quality for small images in newspaper or magazine reproduction. Eight to 24 megapixel images, found in modern digital SLRs, when combined with high-end lenses, can approximate the detail of film prints from 35 mm film based SLRs, and the latest 16 megapixel models can produce detailed images that are thought better than 35mm film images and the majority of medium format cameras.[6] [edit] Disadvantages of digital cameras * Whereas film cameras can have manual backups for electronic and electrical features, digital cameras are entirely dependent on an electrical supply (usually batteries but sometimes power cord when in ‘tethered’ mode). * Many digital sensors have less dynamic range than color print film. However, some newer CCDs such as Fuji’s Super CCD, which combines diodes of different sensitivity, have improved upon this issue. * When highlights burn out, they burn to white without details, while film cameras cash advance retain a reduced level of detail, as discussed above. * High ISO image noise may manifest as multicolored speckles in digital images, rather than the less-objectionable “grain” of high-ISO film. While this speckling can be removed by noise-reduction software, either in-camera or on a computer, this can have a detrimental effect on image quality as fine detail may be lost in the process. * Aliasing may add patterns to images that do not exist and would not appear in film. * The possibility that in the future certain digital file formats (for example, JPEG) may become obsolete/replaced. * Dust particles can adhere to the cover glass of the image sensor in digital cameras, resulting in persisting dust spots in images. Film cameras use a fresh piece of film for each shot, so dust does not build up on the film. Digital image sensors may be cleaned with a simple cleaning kit or professionally, and some digital cameras have built-in sensor cleaning mechanisms, mitigating this problem. For most consumers in prosperous Car Insurance countries such as the United States and Western Europe, the advantages of digital cameras outweigh their disadvantages. However, some professional photographers still prefer film. Much of the post-shooting work done by a photo lab for film is done by the photographer himself for digital images. Concerns that have been raised by professional photographers include: editing and post-processing of RAW files can take longer than 35mm film, downloading a large number of images to a computer can be time-consuming, shooting in remote sites requires the photographer to carry a number of batteries and add to the load to carry, equipment failure—while all cameras may fail, some film camera problems (e.g., meter or rangefinder problems, failure of only some shutter speeds) can be worked around. As time passes, it is expected that more professional photographers will switch to digital. In some cases where very high-resolution digital images of good quality are needed it may be advantageous to take large-format film photographs and digitise them. This allows the creation of very large computer Payday Loans files without speed or capacity disadvantages at picture-taking time. Image noise / grain Noise in a digital camera’s image is remarkably similar to film grain in a film camera. At high ISO levels (film speed) the grain/noise becomes more apparent in the final image. Although film ISO levels can be lower than digital ISO levels (25 and 50 respectively), digital settings can be changed quickly according to requirements, while film must be physically replaced and protected from all light during such replacement. Additionally, image noise reduction techniques can be used to remove noise from digital images and film grain is fixed. From an artistic point of view, film grain and image noise may be desirable when creating a specific mood for an image. Modern digital cameras have comparable noise/grain at the same ISO as film cameras. Some digital cameras though, do exhibit a pattern in the digital noise that is not found on film. Speed of use Previously digital cameras had a longer start-up delay compared to film cameras, i.e., tenant screening the delay from when they are turned on until they are ready to take the first shot, but this is no longer the case for modern digital cameras with start-up times under 1/4 second (0.15 seconds for the Nikon D90).[8] Similarly, the amount of time needed to write the data for a digital picture to the memory card is now comparable to the amount of time it takes to wind the film on a film camera, at least with modern digital cameras and modern fast memory cards.[citation needed] Both digital cameras and film cameras have a small delay between when the shutter button is pressed and when the picture is taken – this is the time necessary to autofocus the lens and compute and set the exposure. (This shutter delay is practically zero for SLR and the best DSLR cameras.) Frame rate The Nikon D3 can take still photographs at 11 frames per second; the fastest film SLR could shoot 14 frames per second (Canon F1-n with a super high Meladerm speed motor, but fewer than 100 were constructed for the 1984 Summer Olympics[citation needed]). The Nikon F5 is limited to 36 continuous frames (the length of the film) while the Canon EOS-1D Mark III is able to take about 110 high definition JPEG images before its buffer must be cleared and the remaining space on the storage media can be used. Even Bridge camera such as Fujifilm FinePix HS10 has burst mode 10fps and Panasonic Lumix DMC-FZ100 has 11fps.[9][10] Moreover FinePix HS10 can take movies at 1000 fps at 224×64 pixels with no sound. Image longevity Film and prints can fade, but digital images can potentially last unchanged forever. However, the media on which the digital images are stored can decay or become corrupt, leading to a loss of image integrity. Film and digital media should be stored under archival conditions for maximum longevity. Without backup it is easier to lose huge amounts of digital data, for example by accidental deletion of folders, or by failure of a mass storage Reverse phone number lookup device. In comparison, each generation of copies of film negatives and transparencies is degraded compared to its parent. Film images can easily be converted to digital (by using a digital film scanner for example) with some possible loss of quality. Colour reproduction Colour reproduction (gamut) is dependent on the type and quality of film or sensor used and the quality of the optical system and film processing. Different films and sensors have different color sensitivity; the photographer needs to understand his equipment, the light conditions, and the media used to ensure accurate colour reproduction. Many digital cameras offer RAW format (sensor data), which makes it possible to choose color space in the development stage regardless of camera settings; in effect the scene itself is stored as far as the sensor allows, and can to some extent be “rephotographed” with different color balance, exposure, etc. Although RAW format can be used, the sensor and the cameras dynamics can only capture in the GAMUT that the system will allow, and when that fitted wardrobes image is transferred for reproduction on any device the best possible gamut that the person viewing the image will see is the gamut of the end device for a monitor it would be the screens gamut, for a photgraphic print it will be the gamut of the device that printed the image on the paper. Color Gamut or Color Space is an abstract term for describing an area where points of color fit in a three dimensional space. You might more easily picture this as different shaped/sized boxes whereby one box may not fit into another and therefore what does not fit gets clipped off. A typical digital camera’s aspect ratio is 1.33 (4:3), the same as today’s NTSC or PAL/SECAM TVs or earliest movies. However, a 35 mm picture’s aspect ratio is 1.5 (3:2). Several new digital cameras take photos in either ratio, and nearly all digital SLRs take pictures in a 3:2 ratio as they usually use lenses designed for 35 mm film (Olympus and Panasonic digital SLRs hair loss treatment are notable exceptions). Some photo labs print photos on 4:3 ratio paper, as well as the existing 3:2. In 2005 Panasonic launched the first consumer camera with a native aspect ratio of 16:9, matching HDTV. This is similar to a 7:4 aspect ratio, which was a common size for APS film. Different aspect ratios is one of the reasons consumers have cropping issues when printing digital photos, or film photos. Moreover, the majority of digital cameras take an aspect ratio of 4:3, which translates to a size of 4.5″ x 6.0″. This translates into losing a half an inch when printing on the “standard” size of 4″ x 6″, an aspect ratio of 3:2. Similar cropping occurs when printing on other sizes, i.e., 5″x7″, 8″x10″, or 11″x14″. The easy way to see if the aspect ratio you want fits is to divide the length and width. If these match, there is no cropping of the original image. For example, an 8″x12″ has the same aspect ratio as a 4″x6″ or hostgator coupon a 12″x18″, because 12 divided by 8 is 1.5, the same aspect ratio as a 4″x6″, which is also 1.5. In late 2002, 2 megapixel cameras were available in the United States for less than $100, with some 1 megapixel cameras for under $60. At the same time, many discount stores with photo labs introduced a “digital front end”, allowing consumers to obtain true chemical prints (as opposed to ink-jet prints) in an hour. These prices were similar to those of prints made from film negatives. However, because digital images have a different aspect ratio than 35 mm film images, people have started to realize that 4×6 inch prints crop some of the image off the print. Some photofinishers have started offering prints with the same aspect ratio as the digital cameras record. In July 2003, digital cameras entered the disposable camera market with the release of the Ritz Dakota Digital, a 1.2 megapixel (1280 x 960) CMOS-based digital camera costing only $11 (USD). Following the familiar single-use concept long life insurance quotes in use with film cameras, the Dakota Digital was intended to be used by a consumer one time only. When the pre-programmed 25 picture limit is reached, the camera is returned to the store, and the consumer receives back prints and a CD-ROM with their photos. The camera is then refurbished and resold. Since the introduction of the Dakota Digital, a number of similar single-use digital cameras have appeared. Most of the various single-use digital cameras are nearly identical to the original Dakota Digital regarding specifications and functionality, although a few include superior specifications and more advanced functions (such as higher image resolutions and LCD screens). Most, if not all, of these single-use digital cameras cost less than $20 (USD), not including processing fees. However, the huge demand for complex digital cameras at competitive prices has often resulted in manufacturing shortcuts, evidenced by a large increase in customer complaints over camera malfunctions, high parts prices, and short service life. Some digital cameras offer only a 90-day warranty. Prices of 35mm seo company compact cameras have dropped with manufacturers further outsourcing to countries such as China. Kodak announced in January 2004 that they would no longer sell Kodak-branded film cameras in the developed world.[12] In January 2006, Nikon followed suit and announced they would stop production of all but two models of their film cameras. They will continue to produce the low-end Nikon FM10, and the high-end Nikon F6. In the same month, Konica Minolta announced it was pulling out of the camera business altogether. The price of 35mm and APS compact cameras have dropped, probably due to direct competition from digital and the resulting growth of the offer of second-hand film cameras.[13] Pentax have reduced production of film cameras but not halted it.[14] The technology has improved so rapidly that one of Kodak’s film cameras was discontinued before it was awarded a “camera of the year” award later in the year. Since 2002, digital cameras have outsold film cameras. However, the use of 35mm cameras is greater in developing countries.[15] In Guatemala, stop dog biting for example, extremely high import duties on all digital products serves to encourage sales and use of film cameras. The decline in film camera sales has also led to a decline in purchases of film for such cameras. In November 2004, a German division of Agfa-Gevaert, AgfaPhoto, split off. Within six months it filed for bankruptcy . Konica Minolta Photo Imaging, Inc. ended production of Color film and paper worldwide by March 31, 2007. In addition, by 2005, Kodak employed less than a third of the employees it had twenty years earlier. It is not known if these job losses in the film industry have been offset in the digital image industry. In addition, digital photography has resulted in some positive market impacts as well. The increasing popularity of products such as digital photo frames and canvas prints is a direct result of the increasing popularity of digital photography. Throughout the history of photography, technological advances in optics, camera production, developing, and imaging have had an effect on the way small dog breeds people view images. Up until 1960, most printed photographs were black and white. Cameras that could print colour film began to be popular in the 1960s, particularly with the introduction of the Polaroid camera invented by Edwin Land, which could print out a colour film print directly from the camera, within a few minutes of taking the picture. Up until the advent of the digital camera, amateur photographers could either buy print film for their camera, or slide film. If they purchased slide film, the resulting slides could be viewed using a slide projector. Digital photography began to be available in the early 2000s. The simultaneous increased use of the Internet and email, relatively cheap computers and digital cameras led to a tremendous increase in the number of photographic images in digital formats. In the early part of the 21st century, the dominant method of viewing still images has been on computers and, to a lesser extent, on cellular phones (although people still make and look at prints). These factors Swimming Pool have led to a decrease in film and film camera sales and film processing, and has had a dramatic effect on companies such as Fuji, Kodak, and Agfa. In addition, many stores that used to offer photofinishing services or sell film no longer do, and those that do have seen a tremendous decline. Photographic images have always been prone to fading and loss of image quality due to sun exposure or improper storage of film negatives, slides, and prints. Since digital images are stored as data on a computer, the image never loses visual quality, detail, or fidelity as long as the digital media remains intact. The only way to ruin a digital image is to delete the image file, corrupt or re-write some of the image file’s data, or damage or destroy the electronic storage media (hard drive, disk, CD-ROM, flash card, etc.) that contains the file. As with all computer files, making backups is the most effective way of ensuring a digital image can be recovered. Of growing aloe vera concern for both archivists and historians is the relative non-permanence or transitory nature of digital media. Unlike film and print, which are tangible and immediately accessible to a person, storage of digital images is ever-changing with old media and decoding software becoming obsoleted or inaccessible by new technologies. Historians are concerned that we are creating a historical void where information and details about a given decade or era will have been lost within either failed or inaccessible digital media. It is recommended that both professional and amateur users develop strategies for migrating stored digital images from old technologies to new.[16] Scrapbookers who may have used film for creating artistic and personal memoirs may need to modify their approach to digital photobooks in order to personalise them and retain the special qualities of traditional photo albums. It is likely that film will never again be purchased and used on the scale it was for most of the 20th century. However, it probably will not disappear altogether. At its advent in the male pattern baldness early 19th century, many believed photography would supplant the painting of portraits and landscapes. In the same way that acrylic and oil paint are still dominant media in use by artists and hobbyists, it is likely that photographic film and equipment will remain an option for enthusiasts. It is also important to note that the differences between film and digital photography are far less significant than the differences between painting and film photography. The web has been a popular medium for storing and sharing photos ever since the first photograph was published on the web by Tim Berners-Lee in 1992 (an image of the CERN house band Les Horribles Cernettes). Today popular sites such as Flickr, Picasa and PhotoBucket are used by millions of people to share their pictures. Research and development continues to refine the lighting, optics, sensors, processing, storage, display, and software used in digital photography. Here are a few examples. * 3D models can be created from collections of normal images. The resulting scene can be viewed hair transplant from novel viewpoints, but creating the model is very computationally intensive. An example is Microsoft’s Photosynth, which provides some models of famous places as examples.[17] * High dynamic range cameras and displays are commercially available. >120 decibel sensors are in development, and software is also available to combine multiple non-HDR images (shot with different exposures) into an HDR image. * Motion blur can be dramatically removed by a flutter shutter (a flickering shutter that adds a signature to the blur, which postprocessing recognizes).[18] It is not yet commercially available. * An object’s specular reflection can be captured using computer controlled lights and sensors. This is needed to create attractive images of oil paintings, for instance. It is not yet commercially available, but is starting to be used by museums. * Dust reduction systems to help keep dust off of image sensors, originally introduced only by a few cameras like Olympus DSLRs, have now become standard in most models and brands. Other areas of progress include improved sensors, more powerful software, towels enlarged-gamut displays, and computer controlled lighting. Digital imaging Digital imaging or digital image acquisition is the creation of digital images, typically from a physical scene. The term is often assumed to imply or include the processing, compression, storage, printing, and display of such images. Digital imaging was developed in the 1960s and 1970s, largely to avoid the operational weaknesses of film cameras, for scientific and military missions including the KH-11 program. As digital technology became cheaper in later decades it replaced the old film methods for many purposes. A digital image may be created directly from a physical scene by a camera or similar devices. Alternatively, it may be obtained from another image in an analog medium, such as photographs, photographic film, or printed paper, by an image scanner or similar device. Many technical images—such as those acquired with tomographic equipment, side-scan sonar, or radio telescopes—are actually obtained by complex processing of non-image data. This digitalization of analog real-world data is known as digitizing, and involves sampling (discretization) and quantization. Mage Monster Finally, a digital image can also be computed from a geometric model or mathematical formula. In this case the name image synthesis is more appropriate, and it is more often known as rendering. Digital image authentication is an emerging issue[citation needed] for the providers and producers of high resolution digital images such as health care organizations, law enforcement agencies and insurance companies. There are methods emerging in forensic science to analyze a digital image and determine if it has been altered. The arrival of true digital cameras The first true digital camera that recorded images as a computerized file was likely the Fuji DS-1P of 1988, which recorded to a 16 MB internal memory card that used a battery to keep the data in memory. This camera was never marketed in the United States, and has not been confirmed to have shipped even in Japan. The first commercially available digital camera was the 1990 Dycam Model 1; it also sold as the Logitech Fotoman. It used a CCD image sensor, the authority formula stored pictures digitally, and connected directly to a computer for download. In 1991, Kodak brought to market the Kodak DCS-100, the beginning of a long line of professional Kodak DCS SLR cameras that were based in part on film bodies, often Nikons. It used a 1.3 megapixel sensor and was priced at $13,000. The move to digital formats was helped by the formation of the first JPEG and MPEG standards in 1988, which allowed image and video files to be compressed for storage. The first consumer camera with a liquid crystal display on the back was the Casio QV-10 in 1995, and the first camera to use CompactFlash was the Kodak DC-25 in 1996. The marketplace for consumer digital cameras was originally low resolution (either analog or digital) cameras built for utility. In 1997 the first megapixel cameras for consumers were marketed. The first camera that offered the ability to record video clips may have been the Ricoh RDC-1 in 1995. 1999 saw the introduction of the Nikon D1, a Authority Formula Review 2.74 megapixel camera that was the first digital SLR developed entirely by a major manufacturer, and at a cost of under $6,000 at introduction was affordable by professional photographers and high end consumers. This camera also used Nikon F-mount lenses, which meant film photographers could use many of the same lenses they already owned. Image sensor An image sensor is a device that converts an optical image to an electric signal. It is used mostly in digital cameras and other imaging devices. Early sensors were video camera tubes but a modern one is typically a charge-coupled device (CCD) or a complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) active pixel sensor. Today, most digital still cameras use either a CCD image sensor or a CMOS sensor. Both types of sensor accomplish the same task of capturing light and converting it into electrical signals. A CCD is an analog device. When light strikes the chip it is held as a small electrical charge in each photo sensor. The charges are converted to voltage one pixel at Fast Cash Commissions a time as they are read from the chip. Additional circuitry in the camera converts the voltage into digital information. A CMOS chip is a type of active pixel sensor made using the CMOS semiconductor process. Extra circuitry next to each photo sensor converts the light energy to a voltage. Additional circuitry on the chip may be included to convert the voltage to digital data. Neither technology has a clear advantage in image quality. On one hand, CCD sensors are more susceptible to vertical smear from bright light sources when the sensor is overloaded; high-end frame transfer CCDs in turn do not suffer from this problem. CMOS can potentially be implemented with fewer components, use less power, and/or provide faster readout than CCDs. CCD is a more mature technology and is in most respects the equal of CMOS. CMOS sensors are less expensive to manufacture than CCD sensors. Another hybrid CCD/CMOS architecture, sold under the name “sCMOS”, consists of CMOS readout integrated circuits (ROICs) that are bump bonded to a Straddle Trader Pro CCD imaging substrate – a technology that was developed for infrared staring arrays and now adapted to silicon-based detector technology.[3] Another approach is to utilize the very fine dimensions available in modern CMOS technology to implement a CCD like structure entirely in CMOS technology. This can be achieved by separating individual poly-silcion gates by a very small gap. These hybrid sensors are still in the research phase, and can potentially harness the benefits of both the CCDs and the CMOS imagers. There are many parameters that can be used to evaluate the performance of an image sensor, including its dynamic range, its signal-to-noise ratio, its low-light sensitivity, etc. For sensors of comparable types, the signal-to-noise ratio and dynamic range improve as the size increases. There are many parameters that can be used to evaluate the performance of an image sensor, including its dynamic range, its signal-to-noise ratio, its low-light sensitivity, etc. For sensors of comparable types, the signal-to-noise ratio and dynamic range improve as the size increases. Full-frame digital SLR world flags A full-frame digital SLR is a digital single-lens reflex camera (DSLR) fitted with an image sensor that is the same size as a 35 mm (36×24 mm) film frame.[1][2] This is in contrast to cameras with smaller sensors, typically of a size equivalent to APS-C-size film, much smaller than a full 35 mm frame. As of 2007[update], the majority of digital cameras, both compact and SLR models, use a smaller-than-35 mm frame, as it is easier and cheaper to manufacture imaging sensors at a smaller size. Historically, the earliest digital SLR models, such as the Kodak DCS 100, also used a smaller sensor. If the lens mounts are compatible, many lenses, including manual-focus models, designed for 35 mm cameras can be mounted on the latest DSLR cameras. When a lens designed for a full-frame camera, whether film or digital, is mounted on a DSLR with a smaller sensor size, only the center of the lens’s image circle is captured. The edges are cropped off, which is equivalent to zooming in memory foam mattress on the center section of the imaging area. The ratio of the size of the full-frame 35 mm format to the size of the smaller format is known as the “crop factor” or “focal-length multiplier?, and is typically in the range 1.3–2.0 for non-full-frame digital SLRs. Full-frame DSLR cameras offer a number of advantages over their smaller-sensor counterparts. One advantage is that wide-angle lenses designed for full-frame 35 mm retain that same wide angle of view. On smaller-sensor DSLRs, wide-angle lenses have smaller angles of view equivalent to those of longer-focal-length lenses on 35 mm film cameras. For example, a 24 mm lens on a camera with a crop factor of 1.5 has a 62° diagonal angle of view, the same as that of a 36 mm lens on a 35 mm film camera. On a full-frame digital camera, the 24 mm lens has the same 84° angle of view as it would on a 35 mm film camera. If the same lens is used on both full-frame and cropped world flags formats, and the subject distance is adjusted to have the same field of view (i.e., the same framing of the subject) in each format, depth of field (DoF) is in inverse proportion to the format sizes, so for the same f-number, the full-frame format will have less DoF. Equivalently, for the same DoF, the full-frame format will require a larger f-number. This relationship is approximate and holds for moderate subject distances, breaking down as the distance with the smaller format approaches the hyperfocal distance, and as the magnification with the larger format approaches the macro range. There are optical quality implications as well—not only because the image from the lens is effectively cropped—but because many lens designs are now optimized for sensors smaller than 36 mm × 24 mm.[citation needed] The rear element of any SLR lens must have clearance for the camera’s reflex mirror to move up when the shutter is released; with a wide-angle lens, this requires a retrofocus design, which is generally of inferior optical quality.[3] Because car prices a cropped-format sensor can have a smaller mirror, less clearance is needed, and some lenses, such as the EF-S lenses for the Canon APS-C sized bodies,[4] are designed with a shorter back-focus distance; however, they cannot be used on bodies with larger sensors. In addition to wide-angle photography, another major advantage of full-frame cameras is pixel size. For a given number of pixels, the larger sensor allows for larger pixels or photosites that provide wider dynamic range and lower noise at high ISO levels.[5] As a consequence, full-frame DSLRs may produce better quality images in certain high contrast or low light situations. The full-frame sensor can also be useful with wide-angle perspective control or tilt/shift lenses; in particular, the wider angle of view is often more suitable for architectural photography. While full-frame DSLRs offer advantages for wide-angle photography, smaller-sensor DSLRs offer some advantages for telephoto photography because the smaller angle of view of small-sensor DSLRs enhances the telephoto effect of the lenses. For example, a 200 mm lens on a Phuket camera with a crop factor of 1.5 has the same angle of view as a 300 mm lens on a full-frame camera. The extra “reach”, for a given number of pixels, can be helpful in specific areas of photography such as wildlife or sports. Production costs for a full-frame sensor can exceed twenty times the costs for an APS-C sensor. Only 20 full-frame sensors will fit on an 8-inch (200 mm) silicon wafer, and yield is comparatively low because the sensor’s large area makes it very vulnerable to contaminants—20 evenly distributed defects could theoretically ruin an entire wafer. Additionally, the full-frame sensor requires three separate exposures during the photolithography stage, tripling the number of masks and exposure processes. Some full-frame DSLRs intended mainly for professional use include more features than typical consumer-grade DSLRs, so some of their larger dimensions and increased mass result from more rugged construction and additional features as opposed to this being an inherent consequence of the full-frame sensor. Digital versus film photography Digital versus film photography seo company has been debated since the 20th century when digital cameras were invented. Both digital and film photography have advantages and drawbacks.[1][2] 21st century photography is dominated by digital operation, but the older photochemical methods continue to serve many users and applications. The quality of digital photographs can be measured in several ways. Pixel count is presumed to correlate with spatial resolution.[3] The quantity of picture elements (pixels) in the image sensor is usually counted in millions and called “megapixels” and often used as a figure of merit. The resolution of film images depends upon the area of film used to record the image – 35 mm, Medium format or Large format – the speed of the film and the quality of lens fitted to the camera. Digital cameras have a variable relationship between resolution and megapixel count;[4] other factors are important in digital camera resolution, such as the number of pixels used to resolve the image, the effect of the Bayer pattern or other sensor filters on the digital sensor Cheap Contact Lenses and the image processing algorithm used to interpolate sensor pixels to image pixels. Digital sensors are generally arranged in a rectangular grid pattern, making images susceptible to moire pattern artifacts, whereas film is not affected by this because of the random orientation of grains.[5] Estimates of a photograph’s resolution taken with a 35 mm film camera vary. More information may be recorded if a fine-grain film, combined with a specially-formulated developer are used. Conversely, less resolution may be recorded with poor quality optics or with coarse-grained film. A 36 mm x 24 mm frame of ISO 100-speed film has first been estimated to contain the equivalent of 20 million pixels[6], estimation which has been later reduced to between 4 and 16 million pixel depending on the type of film used [7] Many professional-quality film cameras use medium format or large format films. Because of the size of the imaging area, these can record higher resolution images than current top-of-the-range digital cameras. A medium format film image can record an equivalent medicare part d of approximately 50 megapixels, while large format films can record around 200 megapixels (4 × 5 inch) which equates to around 800 megapixels on the largest common film format, 8 × 10 inches, without accounting for lens sharpness.[8] A medium format DSLR provides from 42 to 50 megapixels, but cannot be enlarged with the same level of detail as medium format film.[citation needed] The medium which will be used for display, and the viewing distance, should be taken into account. For instance, if a photograph will only be viewed on an old analog television or modern HDTV set of 1080p that can resolve approximately 0.3 megapixel[9] and 2 megapixels, respectively, the resolution provided by high end camera phones may suffice, and inexpensive compact cameras usually will. Similar or more expensive hardware may also fill the screens of computer displays, though those few that show tens of megapixels will be out of reach of low-end film photography and all but specialized scientific or industrial digital cameras. Thermal noise, produced by heat cash advance loans and manufacturing defects, degrades shadow areas of electronic images with random pixels of the incorrect colour. Film grain becomes obvious in areas of even and delicate tone. Grain and film sensitivity are linked, with more sensitive films having more obvious grain. Likewise, when used at high sensitivity settings, digital camera images show more image noise than those made at lower sensitivities.[6] However, even if both techniques have inherent noise, it is widely appreciated that for color, digital photography has much less noise/grain than film at equivalent sensitivity, leading to an edge in image quality[10]. For black and white photography, grain takes a more positive role in image quality, and such comparisons are less valid. Nearly all digital cameras apply noise reduction to long exposure photographs to counteract thermal noise. For very long exposures, the image sensor must be operated at low temperatures to prevent noise affecting the final image. Film grain is not affected by exposure time, although the apparent speed of the film changes with lengthy exposures, a phenomenon dog training obedience known as reciprocity failure. Dynamic range(DR) is a complex issue. Comparisons between film and digital media should consider: * Film type: For example, low-contrast print film has greater dynamic range than slide film’s low dynamic range and higher contrast. * Data format: Raw image format or JPEG? * Pixel density of the sensor: The large sensors in DSLRs and medium format digital cameras generally have larger photosites which collect more light and therefore are generally more sensitive than their diminutive counterparts in compact digital cameras. The larger sensors tend to have better signal to noise characteristics. However signal processing and amplification improves with generation and small sensors of today approach the dynamic range of large sensors in the past. * Scanner: Variations in optics, sensor resolution, scanner dynamic range and precision of the analogue to digital conversion circuit cause variations in image quality. * Optical versus digital prints: Prints differ between media and between images shown on VDUs. * Signal/noise ratio: This defines the limits of dynamic range within a HCG Drops single photograph, and may vary with subject matter. A single comparison cannot demonstrate that digital or film has a smaller or greater dynamic range. Some amateur authors have performed tests with inconclusive results. R. N. Clark, comparing a professional digital camera with 35 mm film, concluded that “Digital cameras, like the Canon 1D Mark II, show a huge dynamic range compared to either print or slide film, at least for the films compared.” Ken Rockwell reached a different conclusion: “CCDs and the related capture electronics will need about ten times more dynamic range (three stops) than they have today to be able to simulate film’s shoulder….This is the biggest image defect in digital cameras today.” Carson Wilson informally compared Kodak Gold 200 film with a Nikon D60 digital camera and concluded that “In this test a high-end consumer digicam fell short of normal consumer color print film in the area of dynamic range.”[14] The digital camera industry is attempting to address the problem of dynamic range. Some cameras have an Retractable Awnings automatic exposure bracketing mode, to be used in conjunction with high dynamic range imaging software. Some CCDs like Fujifilm’s Super CCD combines photosites of different sizes to give increased dynamic range. Other manufacturers use in-camera software to prevent highlight overexposure. Nikon calls this feature D-Lighting. Almost all compact digital cameras, and most digital SLRs or ILCs, have sensors smaller than the 36 mm x 24 mm exposure-frame of “35 mm” film. This affects:[15] 1. Depth of field; 2. Light sensitivity and pixel noise; 3. Relative cropping of the field of view when using lenses designed for 35 mm camera; 4. Optimizing lens design for smaller sensor area; 5. Increased relative enlargement of the captured image. Depth of field is often quoted as being greater for digital cameras than for film cameras. The maxim packages several counterintuitive aspects of photography into a single (largely correct) theorem. Depth of field, for a given lens focal length, at a given f-number will scale with sensor (film/chip) size. In effect, a smaller sensor will como bajar de peso decrease the apparent depth of field because it magnifies the portion of the image that is in focus. However, manufacturers are increasingly using (especially in the budget digital camera market) “35 millimeter equivalent” focal lengths for lenses. This gives rise to the “depth of field is greater for digital cameras” myth: the shorter the focal length of a lens, the greater is its depth of field (at fixed F-stop). Therefore, if a sensor that is one-fourth the width and height of a 24 x 36 mm frame of film is exposed to an image through a lens that is correspondingly one-fourth the focal length, the depth of field increases 16x (scaling per the square of focal length) on an absolute scale, but 4x from a comparison-of-images perspective (the imaging dimension is 4x smaller). This increase in relative depth-of-field may have advantages for taking snapshots; more image will be in focus than with a larger sensor and an autofocus system inaccuracies are less critical to produce an acceptable image. Contrarily, photographers Smokeless Cigarettes wishing to decrease depth of field to create certain effects, such as isolating subjects from their background need to increase aperature when sensors smaller than 36 mm x 24 mm to achieve the same degree of selective focusing.[16] Depth of field can be minimized by use of large format cameras, which are very rarely digital. Light sensitivity and pixel noise are both related to pixel size, which is in turn related to sensor size and resolution. As the resolution of sensors (of a specific format) increase, the size of the individual pixels naturally has to decrease. This smaller pixel size means that each pixel collects less light and the resulting signal must be amplified more to produce the final value. Noise is also amplified and the signal-to-noise ratio decreases, and the higher noise floor means that less useful information is extracted from the darker parts of the image.[15] Countering these effects of digital-signal noise are advances being made in sensor technology itself. Currently (2010) the top-end of digital sensor sensitivity Daily deals is at ISO 102,400 (both Canon and Nikon), whereas the run-of-the-mill prosumer DSLR and ILC cameras offer sensitivities greater than ISO 6400, often with good noise performance at one-quarter maximum sensitivity. Some digital SLRs use lens mounts originally designed for film cameras. If the camera has a smaller imaging area than the lens’ intended film frame, its field of view is cropped. This crop factor is often called a “focal length multiplier” because the effect can be calculated by multiplying the focal length of the lens. For lenses that are not designed for a smaller imaging area whilst using the 35 mm-compatible lens mount, this has the beneficial side effect of only using the centre part of the lens, where the image quality is in some aspects higher.[citation needed] Only expensive digital SLRs and very rarely expensive ‘compacts’ have 36mm × 24 mm sensors, eliminating depth of field and crop factor problems when compared to 35 mm film cameras.[citation needed] The smaller sensor size of digital compact cameras means that Paleo Diet prints are extreme enlargements of the original image, and that the lens must perform well in order to provide enough resolution to match the tiny pixels on the sensor. Most digital compacts have sensors that exceed the maximum resolution that the lens is capable of delivering. Increased sensor resolution may have affect the image resolution because of increased noise reduction Dust on the image plane is a constant issue for photographers. DSLR cameras are especially prone to dust problems because the sensor remains in place, where a film advances through the camera for each exposure. Debris in the camera, such as dust or sand, may scratch the film; a single grain of sand can damage a whole roll of film. As film cameras age, they can develop burs in their rollers. With a digital SLR, dust is difficult to avoid but is easy to rectify using a computer with image-editing software. Some digital SLRs have systems that remove dust from the sensor by vibrating or knocking it, sometimes in conjunction ISO 9001 with software that remembers where dust is located and removes dust-affected pixels from images.[17] Compact digital cameras are fitted with fixed lenses; dust is excluded from the imaging area. Similar film cameras are often only light-tight and not environmentally sealed. Some modern DSLRs, like the Olympus E-3, incorporate extensive dust and weather seals to avoid this problem. Film produces a first generation image, which contains only the information admitted through the aperture of the camera. Trick photography is more difficult with film; in law enforcement and where the authenticity of an image is important, like passport or visa photographs, film provides greater security over most digital cameras, as digital files may have been modified using a computer. However, some digital cameras can produce authenticated images. If someone modifies an authenticated image, it can be determined with special software.[18] SanDisk claims to have developed a write-once memory stick for cameras, and that the images once written cannot be altered. From an artistically conservative standpoint, some practitioners believe that the use of drug rehab film offers a more authentic mode of expression than with easily enhanced digital images. As with the earlier transition from oil painting to photography, or from photographic plates to film photography, older methods are more expensive, thus encourage more selectivity and additional consideration. Film photographs may be digitally scanned into a computer with a scanner. They may then be manipulated as digital images. Several methods are available: * A reflective image scanner may be used; inexpensive flatbed scanners can scan an image on paper media. * An expensive and very high resolution drum scanner can scan reflective and transparent media. * A Flying spot scanner can scan reels of film quickly. * A dedicated film scanner, such as the Nikon Coolscan (pictured), can scan 35 mm transparencies and negatives. Other film scanners can scan 120 film, typically up to 6 x 7 cm or 6 x 9 cm. * A digital camera on a copy stand can photograph the source image. * A slide projector can project the image from web marketing a transparency onto a screen, so the digital camera can photograph it. Films and prints, processed and stored in ideal conditions, may remain substantially unchanged for more than 100 years. Gold or platinum toned prints may have a lifespan limited by that of the base material.[citation needed] The archival potential of digital images is poorly understood because digital media have existed for 50 years. The physical stability of the recording medium, future readability of the storage medium and future readability of the file formats used for storage are issues to be considered. Some types of digital media are incapable of storing data for prolonged periods. According to proponents of digital media magnetic disks and tapes will lose their data after twenty years, although in practice properly stored magnetic media will last far longer, perhaps hundreds of years. However flash memory cards may lose their data in fewer than twenty years. Good quality optical media may be the most durable digital storage media.[citation needed] It is important to consider the future Wedding Favors readability of storage media. Assuming the storage media can continue to hold data for prolonged periods of time. The equipment necessary to read media may become unavailable. For example, 5¼-inch floppy disks were first made available in 1976 but the drives to read them are already extremely rare. Also lower density floppy disk formats (e.g. 360k) prove to be more readily readable 25 years later. The ability to decode the data is important. Digital cameras save photographs in JPEG format, that has existed for approximately 15 years. Because the instructions on how to decode this format are publicly known, it is unlikely that this files will be unreadable in the future. Most professional cameras can save in a Raw image format, the future of which is less certain. Some of these formats contain proprietary data which is encrypted or protected by patents, and could be abandoned by their makers for economic or other reasons, causing possible future difficulty in decoding these files unless the camera makers were to release information car loans on the file formats. In order to counteract the file format problems, many organizations prefer to choose an open and popular file format, increasing the chance that software will exist to decode the file in the future. Many organizations take an active approach to archiving rather than relying on the future readability of digital files, relying upon the ability to make perfect copies of digital media. Rather than leaving data on in format which may potentially become unreadable or unsupported, the information can be copied to newer media without loss of quality. Digital images may also be printed and stored like other printed photos. Flexibility and convenience have been the main reasons for the widespread adoption of digital cameras. With film cameras, film is normally completely exposed before being processed. When the film is returned it is possible to see the photograph. Most digital cameras incorporate a liquid crystal display that allows the image to be viewed immediately after capture. The photographer may delete undesired or unnecessary photographs. The screen free ipad allows the photographer to repeat the image if required. When a user desires prints, it is only necessary to print the required photographs. With digital imaging, images may be conveniently stored on a personal computer. Professional-grade digital cameras can store pictures in a raw image format, which stores the output from the sensor rather than processing it immediately to form an image. When edited in suitable software, such as Adobe Photoshop or the GNU program GIMP (which uses dcraw to read raw files), the user may manipulate certain parameters of the image, such as contrast, sharpness or color balance before producing an image. Alternatively, users may retouch the content of recorded JPEG images; software for this purpose may be provided with consumer-grade cameras. Digital photography allows the collection of a large quantity of archival documents in a short period of time, which has benefits for researchers such as convenience, lower cost and increased flexibility in using the documents.[22] For large format and ultra large format photography, film may have some bankruptcy information advantages over digital cameras, such as price and flexibility, when used outside the studio environment. Large digital rotating line cameras provide similarly high performance, but scan mechanically rather than use a single sensor, making them expensive and not very portable. Film and digital imaging systems have different cost emphases. Digital cameras are significantly more expensive than film equivalents, but taking photographs with them is effectively cost-free. The price of digital cameras continues to fall. Other costs associated with digital photography are specialist batteries, memory cards, paper, printer ink cartridges and long-term storage. High quality film cameras are less complicated and therefore less expensive, ongoing film and processing costs being the major expense. Film prices have risen in recent years as supply diminishes. With many photographers switching to digital, film cameras and lenses are now available on the second-hand market at often much-reduced prices, allowing for semi-professional and even professional film cameras to be owned by people who would once never have been able to afford them. Lenses for SLR and Minecraft Skins DSLR cameras The major advantage of SLR and DSLR cameras is the possibility of changing lenses, to select the best lens for the current photographic need, and to allow the attachment of specialized lenses. Film SLR cameras have existed since the late 1950s, and over the years a very large number of different lenses have been produced, both by camera manufacturers (who typically only make lenses intended for their own camera bodies) and by third-party optics companies who may make lenses for several different camera lines. DSLRs became available around the mid-1990s, and have become extremely popular in recent years. Some manufacturers, for example Minolta, Canon and Nikon, chose to make their DSLRs 100% compatible with their existing SLR lenses in the beginning, allowing owners of new DSLR’s to continue to use their existing lenses and get a longer lifespan from their investment. Others, for example Olympus, chose to create a completely new lens mount and series of lenses for their DSLRs. The Pentax SLR camera K-mount system is backward web design company compatible to all previous lens generations from Pentax, including the latest digital SLRs like the K-5 and K-R. A Pentax K-mount lens from the early 70s can be utilized on the newest Pentax DSLR. There are a few exceptions from the MZ and ZX series of Pentax film cameras that do not work with some of the older lenses.[1] As implied by the above, lenses are only directly interchangeable within the “mount system” for which they are built. Mixing mounting systems requires an adapter, and most often results in compromises such as loss of functionality, i.e. auto focus or automatic aperture control. Further, in some cases the adapter will require an additional optical element to correct for varied registration distances (the distance from the rear of the mount to the focal plane on the image sensor or film). Additionally, there are instances where an adapter is not available. The aperture of a lens is the opening that regulates the amount of light that passes through the lens. It is controlled Zenerx by a diaphragm inside the lens, which is in turn controlled either manually or by the exposure circuitry in the camera body. The relative aperture is specified as an f-number, the ratio of the lens focal length to its effective aperture diameter. A small f-number like f/2.0 indicates a large aperture (more light passes through), while a large f-number like f/22 indicates a small aperture (little light passes through). Aperture settings are usually not continuously variable; instead the diaphram has typically 5–10 discrete settings. The normal “full-stop” f-number scale for modern lenses is as follows: 1, 1.4, 2, 2.8, 4, 5.6, 8, 11, 16, 22, 32, but many lenses also allow setting to half-stop or third-stop increments. A “slow” lens (one that is not capable of passing a lot of light through) might have a maximum aperture from 5.6 to 11, while a “fast” lens (one that can pass more light through) might have a maximum aperture from 1 to 4. Fast lenses are typically larger than slow lenses (for gold coast massage comparable focal length), and typically cost more.[2] The aperture affects not only the amount of light that passes through the lens, but also the depth of field of the resulting image: a larger aperture will have a shallow depth of field, while a smaller aperture will have a wider depth of field. The focal length of a lens, together with the size of the image sensor in the camera (or size of the 35 mm film), determines the angle of view. A lens is considered to be a “normal lens”, in terms of its angle of view on a camera, when its focal length is approximately equal to the diagonal dimension of the film format or image sensor format.[4] The resulting diagonal angle of view of about 53 degrees is often said to approximate the angle of human vision; since the angle of view of a human eye is at least 140 degrees,[5] more careful authors will qualify that, for example as “similar to the angle of crisp human vision.”[6] ipad 3 A wide-angle lens has a shorter focal length, and includes more of the viewed scene than a normal lens; a telephoto lens has a longer focal length, and images a small portion of the scene, making it seem closer. Lenses are not labeled or sold according to their angle of view, but rather by their focal length, usually expressed in millimeters. But this specification is insufficient to compare lenses for different cameras because field of view also depends on the sensor size. For example, a 50 mm lens mounted on a Nikon D3 (a full-frame camera) provides approximately the same field of view as a 32 mm lens mounted on a Sony ? 100 (an APS-C camera). Conversely, the same lens can produce different fields of view when mounted on different cameras. For example, a 35 mm lens mounted on a Canon EOS 5D (full-frame) provides a slightly wide-angle view, while the same lens mounted on a Canon EOS 400D (APS-C) provides a “normal” or slightly telephoto view. In order Phuket Thailand Forum and Hotels to make it easier to compare lens–camera pairs, it is common to talk about their 35 mm equivalent focal length. For example, when talking about a 14 mm lens for a Four Thirds System camera, one would not only indicate that it had a focal length of 14 mm, but also that its “35 mm equivalent focal length” is 28 mm. This way of talking about lenses is not just limited to SLR and DSLR lenses; it is very common to see this focal length equivalency in the specification of the lens on a digicam. Values in the following table are approximate, and apply to rectilinear lenses only, not to fisheye lenses. The focal length of a zoom lens is not fixed; instead it can be varied between a specified minimum and maximum value. Modern lens technology is such that the loss of image quality in zoom lenses (relative to non-zoom lenses) is minimal, and zoom lenses have become the standard lenses for SLRs and DSLRs. This is different from skin care products the late 1980s when, due to image quality concerns, most professional photographers still relied primarily on standard non-zoom lenses. However, zoom lenses still typically have a lower maximum aperture than fixed-focal (“prime”) lenses for the same weight and cost, especially for shorter focal lengths. Zoom lenses are often described by the ratio of their longest to shortest focal lengths. For example, a zoom lens with focal lengths ranging from 100 mm to 400 mm may be described as a 4:1 or “4×” zoom. Typical zoom lenses cover a 3.5× range, for example from 24 – 90 mm (standard zoom) or 60 – 200 mm (telephoto zoom). “Super-zoom” lenses with a range of 10× or even 14× are becoming more common, although the image quality does typically suffer a bit compared with the more traditional zooms. The maximum aperture for a zoom lens may be the same (constant) for all focal lengths, but it is more common that the maximum aperture is greater at the wide-angle end than at the telephoto hair loss end of the zoom range. For example, a 100 mm to 400 mm lens may have a maximum aperture of f/4.0 at the 100 mm end but will diminish to only f/5.6 at the 400 mm end of the zoom range. Zoom lenses with constant maximum apertures (such as f/2.8 for a 24-70mm lens) are usually reserved for lenses with higher build quality and are thus more expensive than those with variable maximum apertures. Standard non-zoom lenses are called prime lenses or simply “primes”. Their advantage, in addition to typically giving a slightly better image quality, is that they are smaller, lighter and cheaper than a zoom lens of the same quality. A prime lens may also be “faster”, i.e., have a larger maximum aperture (smaller f-number), so it can be used with less light (with the same shutter speed), and can provide less depth of field in situations where this is desirable. Macro lenses are designed for extreme closeup work. Such lenses are popular for nature shooting such as car mats small flowers, as well as for many technical applications. As most of these lenses can also focus to infinity and tend to be quite sharp, many are used as general-purpose optics. Most users of SLR and DSLR cameras stick to using zoom lenses, while a few of the more adventurous amateurs and many professional photographers also invest in a few prime lenses. Special purpose lenses are, as the designation implies, for special purposes, and are not so common. There are many different kinds of special purpose lenses, the most popular being fisheye lenses, which are extreme wide-angle lenses with an angle of view of up to 180 degrees or more, with very noticeable (and intended) distortion. Some other kinds of special purpose lenses, such as perspective control lenses and soft-focus lenses, were more popular with film SLRs but are less popular for DSLRs because the same or similar results can be obtained with post-processing software. For a more complete discussion of special purpose lenses see Special-purpose photographic lenses. Almost all cheap auto insurance modern lenses for SLRs and DSLRs provide automatic focus. The autofocus sensor(s) and electronics are actually in the camera body, and this circuitry provides electrical power and signals to a motor inside the lens that adjusts the focus. (Some older autofocus systems are based on a motor in the camera body and using a mechanical connection to the focus mechanism in the lens.) There are two different kinds of in-lens electronic focus drive motors currently in use, the traditional servo motor and the more modern “ultrasonic” drive systems. These ultrasonic drives go by different names according to the manufacturer, for example USM (Canon), AF-S/Silent Wave (Nikon), Super Sonicwave Motor/SSM (Sony), Supersonic Wave Drive (Olympus), Extra Silent Motor (Panasonic/Leica), Supersonic Drive Motor (Pentax), and Hypersonic Motor/HSM (Sigma). These ultrasonic focus drives typically provide faster focusing than the non-ultrasonic drives, as well as being practically silent and using less battery power. Image stabilization is a technique used to reduce image blur caused by the camera not being held steady. There are two Guru Masterclass kinds of image stabilization used in SLR and DSLR cameras and their lenses: * In-body image stabilization is implemented by moving the image sensor in an attempt to counteract the sensed motion of the camera. The advantage of this technique is that it works for all lenses mounted on the camera, at least if the camera electronics are aware of the lens’ focal length. This is most commonly done automatically, but some cameras (such as all Olympus bodies with IS) allow the user to input the focal length manually for use with lenses with no electronic coupling. In-body image stabilization is used in modern Olympus, Sony, and Pentax cameras. * In-lens image stabilization is implemented in the lens itself, and moves the lens elements in an attempt to counteract the sensed motion of the camera. The inherent advantage of this kind of image stabilization is that it steadies the viewfinder image, allowing for more accurate framing and autofocus. The disadvantage is that you have to pay the extra cost for Digital Marketer Lab every lens you buy for which you want image stabilization.[8] Panasonic, Canon, and Nikon use lens-based image stabilization. Some third-party lenses from Sigma and Tamron also have lens-based IS systems. The effectiveness of image stabilization systems varies somewhat from implementation to implementation, but there seems to be no inherent superiority to either lens-based or sensor-based systems [9] as far as the actual improvement in captured images. Image stabilization systems can degrade image quality if the photographer is intentionally panning (as the system tries to negate the panning motion), or if the camera is mounted on a very sturdy tripod (the system drifts around slowly due to spurious measurements over the course of a long exposure). Some more recent IS systems can automatically detect these situations and disable the IS along the panning axis, or disable it completely if the camera is on a tripod. Mounting a lens with optical image stabilization on a camera with in-body image stabilization does not provide improved results, since the combined effect of both systems Game Changer DNA will “overcorrect”. Users of image-stabilized lenses on bodies with sensor-shift IS should determine which system offers superior performance and turn the other off. There is almost no commonality between different camera makers regarding lens mount systems. Each manufacturer has developed their own system, and build camera bodies and lenses that only work with their own lens mount, with the Four Thirds System being a partial exception. This was different before 1970 when most of the manufacturers use either M42 or M39 lenses, most of which can still be used depending on the particular adapter you can find. This does not necessarily mean that one is limited to only mounting, for example, Pentax lenses on a Pentax camera body. There are independent optics companies that make lenses for the various otherwise proprietary mount systems, thus providing alternative sources for lenses that are often of equal quality and/or less expensive than the camera maker’s own lenses. Another possibility is the use of adaptors that allow mounting a lens for one system on Christmas Gifts a camera with a different lens mount. However, the use of an adaptor usually results in reduced functionality, typically requiring the manual setting of aperture and focus, or perhaps not being able to use any aperture other than “wide open”. Canon introduced the EF lens mount in 1987 as part of the EOS system. It broke with the most common technique for implementing autofocus at that time by not having a mechanical connection to a motor in the camera body, having instead only electrical connections and requiring a motor to be part of each autofocus lens. The EF-S lens mount is a newer subset of the EF standard, introduced in 2003. EF-S lenses can only be used on Canon digital cameras that use the APS-C sensor, for example the 400D (EOS Digital Rebel XTi) and the 40D. Note that while an EF-S lens can not be mounted on a camera that uses the EF mount, EF lenses can be mounted on cameras designed for the EF-S standard. As noted above How to make a website under focal length, Canon makes DSLRs with various sensor sizes, and all using the EF or EF-S lens mounts. This leads to the interesting phenomenon of the same EF lens providing different angles of view depending on which camera it is mounted on. Third-party lenses compatible with Canon’s EF and EF-S mounts are manufactured by Sigma, Tamron, Tokina and Zeiss. The manufacturers of these lenses have reverse engineered the electronics of the EF lens mount. The use of these lenses is not supported by Canon. However, many users find these lenses to be cheaper (with the exception of Zeiss), and sometimes superior alternatives to Canon lenses. The Four Thirds System was created by Olympus and Kodak in 2001, and is designed exclusively for digital cameras.[10] It is the only lens mounting system that is not completely proprietary; it is a semi-open standard that may be licensed by third parties. Currently Olympus, Leica (in cooperation with Panasonic), and Sigma are making lenses under Four Thirds System consortium licensing. The Four Thirds WOW Gold System sensor size (17.3 mm x 13 mm) is the smallest currently being used in DSLR cameras. This leads to both advantages (theoretically smaller, lighter and cheaper lenses and camera bodies) and disadvantages (slightly lower image quality, especially in low-light situations). There are currently over 35 lenses available for Four Thirds System cameras. A complete list can be found on Andrzej Wrotniak’s web site. In North America, Minolta began using the name ‘Maxxum’ for the SLR autofocus cameras, lenses and flashes while in Europe they were called ‘Dynax’, and in Asia the ‘Alpha’ branding was used, though they were otherwise identical in appearance and function – all of the equipment is 100% interchangeable regardless which of the names it carries. Most Minolta Maxxum/Dynax compatible lenses, whether built by Minolta or one of the aftermarket lens manufacturers, are focused externally by a shaft connecting the autofocus computer and motor inside the camera body that mechanically connects to the internal focusing gears inside of the lens body. A couple of later Minolta ppi claims lenses do have a built-in ultrasonic focus motor (SSM lenses), like other SLR and DSLR systems (i.e. Canon and Nikon) where the AF computer is inside the camera body and there is a digital interface connecting body to an electric motor and the focusing gears built into the lens body creating a “drive-by-wire” focusing system. This shaft driven autofocus design has several benefits such as allowing for smaller and lighter lenses and also keeps the cost of lenses down because there are no internal focusing motors or digital interfaces built into the lens. Keeping the autofocus motors inside the camera body and as far away from the lens glass as possible, reduces vibration, an additional benefit. This shaft-driven autofocus system has been extremely successful and continues to this day with Sony’s current breed of state-of-the-art digital SLR cameras, the A-100, A-200, A-300, A-350 and A-700. However, Sony has also released more SSM lenses under the Sony and Zeiss brands. The Nikon F-mount was introduced by Nikon in 1959, and is same day loans thus one of the most venerable lens mounts still in existence. Another factor that makes the Nikon F-mount popular is that several other camera manufacturers, for example Fujifilm, have adopted it. F-mount photographic lenses are currently made by Nikon, Zeiss, Voigtländer, Schneider, Sigma, Tokina, Tamron, Hartblei, Kiev-Arsenal, Lensbaby, Vivitar, and others, and over 400 lenses are compatible with the system. Most Nikon F-mount lenses cover the standard 36×24 mm area of 135 film, while “DX” designated lenses cover the 24×16 mm area of the Nikon DX format sensors, commonly referred to as APS-C format. “DX” lenses produce vignetting when used on film cameras or full frame digital cameras such as the Nikon D3. The D3 and D700 have a DX-compatible mode that reduces the resolution from 12.2 megapixel to 5.1 megapixel that avoids vignetting.[12] There are basically three types of F mount Nikon lens: 1. MF = Manual focus lenses 2. AF & AF-D = Auto focus by camera body driven focus motor, the D version provides distance information 3. tinnitus treatment AF-I & AF-S = Auto focus by integrated/ultrasonic motor in lens, see also List of Nikon compatible lenses with integrated autofocus-motor Industrial F-mount lenses have varying, often small, film/sensor coverage. Older F-mount lenses designed for film cameras will work on modern SLR or DSLR cameras with some limitations, typically not providing autofocus or automatic aperture setting. Entry level Nikon DSLR’s such as Nikon D40, D40X, D60, D3000, D3100 and D5000 do not have an integrated focus motor, so they will not autofocus with AF & AF-D lenses. Similarly, some AF-I & AF-S lenses will not work on some older Nikon AF film SLR’s. The Pentax K mount (or just “PK mount”) was created by Pentax in 1975, and has been used by all Pentax 35 mm and digital SLRs since. The mount has been developed over the years, resulting in a large number of designations such as KF mount, KA mount, KAF mount, KAF2 mount and KA2 mount, plus a couple of more recent versions that are not completely backward-compatible Invisible Fence and are thus referred to as “crippled” versions. (“Crippled” in this context does not imply any lack of modern functionality, just a lack of compatibility with past lenses.) For more information see the Pentax K mount article or Bojidar Dimitrov’s web site.[13] A number of other manufacturers have produced K-mount lenses, and several other manufacturers have made K-mount cameras. In 2005 Pentax and Samsung entered into a cooperation resulting in the Samsung GX line of DSLRs, based largely on Pentax technology including the Pentax K mount. Sigma Corporation, better known for manufacturing lenses for other cameras, has made some film SLR and DSLR cameras themselves. These cameras use the Sigma SA mount, for which Sigma makes a line of lenses. The Sigma DSLR cameras that use the SA mount are the Sigma SD9, Sigma SD10 and Sigma SD14. These cameras are noteworthy for their use of the Foveon X3 sensor, an image sensor that works on quite different principles from the sensors used in all other digital cameras. The Sony teddy bears ? mount system is based on the Minolta AF lens mount, which was introduced with the Minolta Maxxum 7000 camera in 1985, along with 11 AF-mount lenses. Minolta (and later Konica Minolta) followed up by producing a large number of AF-mount lenses over the years up until 2006. Sony acquired Konica Minolta’s camera technologies in 2006, and chose the “?” (alpha) brand name, already in use by Minolta in Asia, for their new “Sony ?” digital SLR system. The Minolta AF lens mount was retained from the old cameras and is now officially known as the “Sony ? mount system”.[14] Sony has produced several new lenses for the Sony ? mount, and the current list of Minolta and Sony ? mount lenses has over 60 entries. Some of the newest ? mount lenses are designated “DT” for Digital Technology; these are for digital cameras with APS-C sensors, and will result in vignetting if used on a film SLR. Third party lenses for the AF lens mount are made by Zeiss, hot tub covers Sigma, Tamron, Tokina and Vivitar. The Nikon F-mount lens systems and the Pentax K-mount systems are the only 35 mm SLR camera systems (apart from the Leica M-mount rangefinder system) that allow a photographer to use a mechanical SLR camera body, a fully automatic SLR camera body, and a DSLR camera body, all utilizing the same lenses. The only aspects of these manufacturers’ lenses that have changed are the addition of electronic contacts, autofocus abilities and, in some cases, the elimination of the external aperture ring for electronic control (i.e., Nikon’s ‘G-type’ auto-Nikkors, which cannot be used on a mechanical SLR camera body). Canon, Minolta (Sony), Olympus, and other manufacturers have changed lens mounts. Much older Canon film cameras used the FD lens mount, which was discontinued in 1987 in favor of the EF lens mount. Olympus discontinued the OM lens mount for the OM series cameras in favor of the Four Thirds System lens mount. However, due to the size of the Four Thirds mount it is possible to discount furniture fit legacy SLR lenses from any manufacturer using an adapter, albeit with manual aperture and focus control. Minolta (Sony after 2006) phased out its bayonet-mount MC and MD Rokkor lenses for a modified bayonet mount (supporting autofocus) in 1985. Raw image format A camera raw image file contains minimally processed data from the image sensor of either a digital camera, image scanner, or motion picture film scanner. Raw files are so named because they are not yet processed and therefore are not ready to be printed or edited with a bitmap graphics editor. Normally, the image is processed by a raw converter in a wide-gamut internal colorspace where precise adjustments can be made before conversion to a “positive” file format such as TIFF or JPEG for storage, printing, or further manipulation, which often encodes the image in a device-dependent colorspace. These images are often described as “RAW image files”, although there is not actually one single raw file format. In fact there are dozens if not hundreds of such formats SEO Services in use by different models of digital equipment (like cameras or film scanners).[1] Raw image files are sometimes called digital negatives, as they fulfill the same role as negatives in film photography: that is, the negative is not directly usable as an image, but has all of the information needed to create an image. Likewise, the process of converting a raw image file into a viewable format is sometimes called developing a raw image, by analogy with the film development process used to convert photographic film into viewable prints. The selection of the final choice of image rendering is part of the process of white balancing and color grading. Like a photographic negative, a raw digital image may have a wider dynamic range or color gamut than the eventual final image format, and it preserves most of the information of the captured image. The purpose of raw image formats is to save, with minimum loss of information, data obtained from the sensor, and the conditions surrounding the capturing of the payday loans online image (the metadata). Providing a detailed and concise description of the content of raw files is highly problematic. There is no single raw format; formats can be similar or radically different. Different manufacturers use their own proprietary and typically undocumented formats, which are collectively known as raw format. Often they also change the format from one camera model to the next. Several major camera manufacturers, including Nikon, Canon and Sony, encrypt portions of the file in an attempt to prevent third-party tools from accessing them.[2] This industry-wide situation of inconsistent formatting has concerned many photographers who worry that their valuable raw photos may someday become inaccessible, as computer operating systems and software programs become obsolete and abandoned raw formats are dropped from new software. The availability of high-quality open source software which decodes raw image formats, particularly dcraw, has helped to alleviate these concerns. An essay by Michael Reichmann and Juergen Specht stated “here are two solutions – the adoption by the camera industry of A: Public documentation of RAW mortgage help formats; past, present and future, or, more likely B: Adoption of a universal RAW format”; and included in its petition “I am also requesting that your company adopt a universal RAW format. The DNG format has been put forward as such a possible standard, but we are willing to accept any truly open standard as the industry may agree upon”.[3] “Planning for [US] Library of Congress Collections” identifies RAW file formats as “less desirable file formats”, and identifies DNG as a suggested alternative.[4] DNG is the only raw image format for which industry-wide buy-in is being sought. It is based upon, and compatible with, the ISO standard raw image format ISO 12234-2, TIFF/EP, and is being used by ISO in their revision of that standard. (See the Standardization section, below.) Raw image formats are intended to reproduce as closely as possible (i.e. at the best of the specific sensor’s performance) the sensitometry of the image, that is, physical information about the light intensity and color of the scene. Most raw iPhone Unlock image file formats store information sensed according to the geometry of the sensor’s individual photo-receptive elements (sometimes called pixels), rather than points in the expected final image: sensors with hexagonal element displacement, for example, record information for each of their hexagonally-displaced cells, which a decoding software will eventually transform into the rectangular geometry during “digital developing”. Raw files contain, by necessity, the information required to produce a viewable image from the camera’s sensor data. The structure of raw files, including the ISO standard raw image format ISO 12234-2, TIFF/EP, often follows a common pattern, that is: * A short file header which typically contains an indicator of the byte-ordering of the file, a file identifier and an offset into the main file data * Camera sensor metadata which is required to interpret the sensor image data. This includes the size of the sensor, the attributes of the CFA and its color profile * Image metadata which is required for inclusion in any CMS environment or database. These include the exposure LED grow lights settings, camera/scanner/lens model, date (and, optionally, place) of shoot/scan, authoring information and other. Some raw files contain a standardized metadata section with data in Exif format. * An image thumbnail * Optionally a reduced-size image in JPEG format, which can be used for a quick and less computing-intensive preview. * In the case of motion picture film scans, either the timecode, keycode or frame number in the file sequence which represents the frame sequence in a scanned reel; this is the most important metadata item, because it allows the file to be ordered in a frame sequence (without relying on its filename). * The sensor image data Many raw file formats (including 3FR (Hasselblad), DCR, K25, KDC (Kodak), CR2 (Canon), ERF (Epson), MEF (Mamiya), MOS (Leaf), NEF (Nikon), ORF (Olympus), PEF (Pentax), RW2 (Panasonic) and ARW, SRF, SR2 (Sony)) are based on the TIFF file format.[5] These files may deviate from the TIFF standard in a number of ways, including the use of a non-standard file header, the inclusion of auto insurance quotes additional image tags and the encryption of some of the tagged data. Panasonic’s raw converter corrects geometric distortion and chromatic aberration on such cameras as the LX3,[6][7][8] with necessary correction information presumably included in the raw.[citation needed] DNG, the Adobe digital negative format, is an extension of the TIFF 6.0 format and is compatible with TIFF/EP, and uses various open formats and/or standards, including Exif metadata, XMP metadata, IPTC metadata, CIE XYZ coordinates, ICC profiles, and JPEG. In digital photography, the Raw file plays the role that photographic film plays in film photography. Raw files thus contain the full resolution (typically 12- or 14-bit) data as read out from each of the camera’s image sensor pixels. The camera’s sensor is almost invariably overlaid with a color filter array, usually a Bayer filter, consisting of a mosaic of a 2×2 matrix of red, green, blue and (second) green filters. One variation on the Bayer filter is the RGBE filter of the Sony Cyber-shot DSC-F828, which exchanged the green in the RG online casino rows with “emerald”[10] (a blue-green[11] or cyan[12] color). Other sensors, such as the Foveon X3 sensor, capture information directly in RGB form, having three pixel sensors in each location, one for each color component; these camera RGB raw data still need to be processed to make an image file, as the RGB values correspond to the responses of the sensors, not to a standard color space like sRGB, though they do not need to be demosaicked. Flatbed and film scanner sensors are typically straight narrow RGB or RGBI (where “I” is Intensity) strips that are swept across an image. The HDRi raw data format is able to store the infrared raw data, which can be used for Infrared cleaning, as an additional 16bit channel. The remainder of the discussion about raw files applies to them as well. (Some scanners do not allow the host system access to the raw data at all, as a speed compromise. The raw data are processed very rapidly inside the scanner to select out the annuities best part of the available dynamic range so only the result is passed to the computer for permanent storage, reducing the amount of data transferred and therefore the bandwidth requirement for any given speed of image throughput.) To obtain an image from a Raw file, this mosaic of data must be converted into standard RGB form. This is often referred to as “raw development.” When converting from the 4 sensor 2×2 Bayer Matrix Raw form into single RGB pixels the original 4 x 12 (or 14) bit data is reduced to 3 x 8 bit. The Green pair is used to control the overall luminance of the processed output pixel (since the human eye is more sensitive to it – and so Green is used as the dominant channel for in-camera black-and-white conversions). If Raw format data is available, it can be used in High dynamic range imaging conversion[citation needed](instead of the ‘standard’ HDI approach of exposing 3 separate images, one under exposed, one correct and one over-exposed, and ‘overlaying’ iphone one on top of the other). Nearly all digital cameras can process the image from the sensor into a JPEG file using settings for white balance, color saturation, contrast, and sharpness that are either selected automatically or entered by the photographer before taking the picture. Cameras that produce raw files save these settings in the file, but defer the processing. This results in an extra step for the photographer, so raw is normally only used when additional computer processing is intended. However, raw has numerous advantages over JPEG such as: * Higher image quality. Because all the calculations (such as applying gamma correction, demosaicing, white balance, brightness, contrast, etc…) used to generate pixel values (in RGB format for most images) are performed in one step on the base data, the resultant pixel values will be more accurate and exhibit less posterization. * Bypassing of undesired steps in the camera’s processing, including sharpening and noise reduction * JPEG images are typically saved using a lossy compression format (though a lossless JPEG acid reflux diet compression is now available). Raw formats are typically either uncompressed or use lossless compression, so the maximum amount of image detail is always kept within the raw file. * Finer control. Raw conversion software allows users to manipulate more parameters (such as lightness, white balance, hue, saturation, etc…) and do so with greater variability. For example, the white point can be set to any value, not just discrete preset values like “daylight” or “incandescent”. As well, the user can typically see a preview while adjusting these parameters. * Camera raw files have 12 or 14 bits of intensity information, not the gamma-compressed 8 bits stored in JPEG files (and typically stored in processed TIFF files); since the data is not yet rendered and clipped to a color space gamut, more precision may be available in highlights, shadows, and saturated colors. * The color space can be set to whatever is desired. * Different demosaicing algorithms can be used, not just the one coded into the camera. * The contents of chiropractic marketing raw files include more information, and potentially higher quality, than the converted results, in which the rendering parameters are fixed, the color gamut is clipped, and there may be quantization and compression artifacts. * Large transformations of the data, such as increasing the exposure of a dramatically under-exposed photo, result in less visible artifacts when done from raw data than when done from already rendered image files. Raw data leave more scope for both corrections and artistic manipulations, without resulting in images with visible flaws such as posterization. * All the changes made on a RAW image file are non-destructive; that is, only the metadata that controls the rendering is changed to make different output versions, leaving the original data unchanged. * To some extent, RAW photography eliminates the need to use the HDRI technique, allowing a much better control over the mapping of the scene intensity range into the output tonal range, compared to the process of automatically mapping to JPEG or other 8-bit representation. * Camera raw files free credit score are typically 2–6 times larger than JPEG files.[13] While use of raw formats avoids the compression artifacts inherent in JPEG, fewer images can fit on a given memory card. However, the large sizes and low prices of modern memory cards do mitigate this. * Most raw formats do not use compression or implement light lossless data compression to reduce the size of the files without affecting image quality. But some others use lossy data compression where quantization and filtering is performed on the image data.[14][15] Many recent cameras[which?] let photographers choose between no compression, lossless compression or lossy compression for their raw images. * The standard raw image format (ISO 12234-2, TIFF/EP) is not widely accepted. DNG, the potential candidate for a new standard format, has not been adopted by many major camera companies. (See “Standardization” section). Numerous different raw formats are currently in use and new raw formats keep appearing, while others are abandoned.[16] * Because of the lack of widespread adoption of a standard raw format, more specialized places to eat software may be required to open raw files than for standardized formats like JPEG or TIFF. Software developers have to frequently update their products to support the raw formats of the latest cameras but open source implementations like dcraw make it easier. * The time taken in the image workflow is an important factor when choosing between raw and ready-to-use image formats. With modern photo editing software the additional time needed to process raw images has been greatly reduced but it still requires an extra step in workflow. Cameras that support raw files typically come with proprietary software for conversion of their raw image data into standard RGB images. Other processing and conversion programs and plugins are available from vendors that have either licensed the technology from the camera manufacturer or reverse-engineered the particular raw format and provided their own processing algorithms. Adobe Photoshop contains extensive support of raw formats since version CS2, as does Adobe Photoshop Lightroom. Microsoft’s Digital Image 2006 recognizes and organizes raw image formats such as.crw, Carpet Cleaning London .cr2, and.nef, which are file formats produced by Canon and Nikon,[citation needed] but that product was discontinued in 2007.[17] Microsoft supplies free software for Windows XP to integrate viewing and printing into the system’s other photo tools; however, this software was last updated in 2005 and does not support many raw files from cameras released subsequently.[18] Windows XP and Vista both support the WIC codec standard. Products such as Konvertor, Windows Photo Gallery, Windows Live Photo Gallery and FastPictureViewer Professional[19] can view raw formats for which the necessary WIC codecs are installed. Camera manufacturers Canon, Nikon, Sony, Olympus and Pentax have released WIC codecs, although some manufactures are only providing codec support for the 32-bit versions of Vista.[20] A commercial DNG codec is also available from Ardfry Imaging,[21] while the makers of FastPictureViewer have released a WIC codec pack, adding support for 22 raw formats to Windows in both 32-bit and 64-bit versions, as donationware.[22] In 2005, Apple Computer introduced several products which offered raw file support. In January, Apple Online Payday Loans released iPhoto 5, which offered basic support for viewing and editing many raw file formats. In April, Apple introduced a new version of its operating system, Mac OS X v10.4, which added raw support directly to the operating system, as part of the ImageIO framework, which adds raw support automatically to the majority of Mac OS X applications both from Apple (such as Preview, Mac OS X’s PDF and image viewing application and Aperture, a photo post-production software package for professionals) as well as all third party applications which make use of the ImageIO frameworks. Semi-regular updates to OS X generally include updated support for new raw file formats introduced in the intervening months by camera makers. There are many other “raw workflow applications” designed to provide efficient processing and post-processing of raw images, including Helicon Filter, Phase One’s Capture One, DxO Labs’ DxO Optics Pro and Bibble Labs’ Bibble Pro. Like Apple Aperture, Adobe Photoshop and Lightroom, LaserSoft Imaging’s SilverFast, and PhotoLine, these programs provide sophisticated controls for processing Iphone 4 Cases the information stored in the raw file and converting raw files to JPEG or TIFF. Picasa, a free image editing and cataloguing program from Google, can read and display many raw formats, but like iPhoto, Picasa provides only limited tools for processing the data in a raw file. A portable open source program, dcraw, supports most raw formats and can be made to run on operating systems not supported by most commercial software (such as Unix). Libraw[23] is an API library based on dcraw, offering a more convenient interface for reading and converting raw files. HDR PhotoStudio and AZImage[24] are some of the commercial applications that use Libraw. Jrawio is another API library, written in pure Java code and compliant to the standard Java Image I/O API. RawTherapee is an open source raw converter supporting the Windows and Linux operating systems. Darktable is an open source RAW workflow tool for Linux and other open unix-like operating systems. UFRaw is free software based on dcraw. It can be used as a hcg diet GIMP plugin and is available for most operating systems. The latest version of GIMP, a free open source photo editing package, imports many raw formats. Older versions have a plug-in which allows it to read and convert raw files. ExifTool supports the reading, writing and editing of metadata in raw image files. ExifTool supports many different types of metadata including Exif, GPS, IPTC, XMP, JFIF, GeoTIFF, ICC Profile, Photoshop IRB, FlashPix, AFCP and ID3, as well as the maker notes of many digital cameras. Light Crafts’ LightZone photo editing software provides the ability to edit many raw formats natively. Most tools are raw converters, but LightZone allows a user to edit a raw file as if it were TIFF or JPEG. Hasselblad’s Phocus is available on both Microsoft Windows and Mac OS X, and the Mac version supports raw image formats from other DSLR manufacturers (including Canon, Nikon, Leica, Sony, Fuji, and Olympus). Phocus is available as a free download from the Hasselblad homepage. The ISO standard raw image format is ISO 12234-2, better known as TIFF/EP. (TIFF/EP also supports “non-raw”, or “processed”, images). TIFF/EP provided a basis for the raw image formats of a number of cameras. For example, Nikon’s NEF raw files are based on TIFF/EP, and include a tag which identifies the version of TIFF/EP they are based on.[26] Adobe’s DNG (Digital Negative) raw file format was based on TIFF/EP, and the DNG specification states “DNG … is compatible with the TIFF-EP standard”.[27] Several cameras use DNG as their raw image format, so in that limited sense they use TIFF/EP too.[28] Adobe Systems launched this DNG raw image format in September 2004. By September 2006, several camera manufacturers had started to announce support for DNG in newer camera models, including Leica, Samsung, Ricoh, Pentax, Hasselblad (native camera support); and Hasselblad, Better Light (export).[29] The Leica Digital-Modul-R (DMR) was first to use DNG as its native format.[30] In September 2009 Adobe stated that there were no known intellectual property encumbrances or license requirements for DNG.[31] (There is a “Digital Negative (DNG) Specification Patent License”,[32] but it does not actually state that there are any patents held on DNG, and the September 2009 statement was made at least 4 years after this License was published). TIFF/EP began its 5-year revision cycle in 2006. Adobe offered the DNG specification to ISO to be part of ISO’s revised TIFF/EP standard.[34][35] A progress report in October 2008 from ISO about the revision of TIFF/EP stated that the revision “… currently includes two “interoperability-profiles,” “IP 1″ for processed image data, using “.TIF” extension, and “IP 2″ for “raw” image data, “.DNG” extension”.[36] It is “IP 2″ that is relevant here. A progress report in September 2009 states that “This format will be similar to DNG 1.3, which serves as the starting point for development.”[37] DNG has been exploited by open-source developers. Use by camera makers varies: the largest companies such as Canon, Nikon, Sony, and some others, don’t use DNG; but smaller companies, and makers of “niche” cameras who might otherwise have difficulty getting support from software companies, frequently use DNG as their native raw image format. (Or in the case of Pentax, as an optional alternative to their own raw image format). There are of the order of 15 or more such companies, even including a few that specialize in movie cameras. To be viewed or printed, the output from a camera’s image sensor has to be processed, that is, converted to a photographic rendering of the scene, and then stored in a standard raster graphics format such as JPEG. This processing, whether done in-camera or later in a raw file converter, involves a number of operations, typically including:[38][39] * decoding – image data of raw files are typically encoded for compression purpose, but also often for obfuscation purpose (e.g. raw files from Canon or Nikon cameras). * defective pixel removal – replacing data in known bad locations with interpolations from nearby locations * white balancing – accounting for color temperature of the light that was used to take the photograph * demosaicing – interpolating the partial raw data received from the color-filtered image sensor into a matrix of colored pixels. * noise reduction – trading off detail for smoothness by removing small fluctuations * color translation – converting from the camera native color space defined by the spectral sensitivities of the image sensor to an output color space (typically sRGB for JPEG) * tone reproduction[40][41] – the scene luminance captured by the camera sensors and stored in the raw file (with a dynamic range of typically 10 or more bits) needs to be rendered for pleasing effect and correct viewing on low-dynamic-range monitors or prints; the tone-reproduction rendering often includes separate tone mapping and gamma compression steps. * compression – for example JPEG compression Note that demosaicing is only performed for CFA sensors; it is not required for 3CCD or Foveon X3 sensors. Cameras and image processing software may also perform additional processing to improve image quality, for example: * removal of systematic noise – bias frame subtraction and flat-field correction * dark frame subtraction * optical correction – lens distortion correction, vignetting correction, and color fringing correction * contrast enhancement * increasing visual acuity by unsharp masking * dynamic range compression – lighten shadow regions without blowing out highlight regions When a camera saves a raw file it defers most of this processing; typically the only processing performed is the removal of defective pixels (the DNG specification requires that defective pixels are removed before creating the file[42]). Some camera manufacturers do additional processing before saving raw files; for example, Nikon has been criticized by astrophotographers for applying noise reduction before saving the raw file.[43] Some raw formats also allow nonlinear quantization. This nonlinearity allows the compression of the raw data without visible degradation of the image by removing invisible and irrelevant information from the image. Although noise is discarded this has nothing to do with (visible) noise reduction. The Exif (Exchangeable image file format) format is a file standard similar to the JFIF format with TIFF extensions; it is incorporated in the JPEG-writing software used in most cameras. Its purpose is to record and to standardize the exchange of images with image metadata between digital cameras and editing and viewing software. The metadata are recorded for individual images and include such things as camera settings, time and date, shutter speed, exposure, image size, compression, name of camera, color information, etc. When images are viewed or edited by image editing software, all of this image information can be displayed. The TIFF (Tagged Image File Format) format is a flexible format that normally saves 8 bits or 16 bits per color (red, green, blue) for 24-bit and 48-bit totals, respectively, usually using either the TIFF or TIF filename extension. TIFF’s flexibility can be both an advantage and disadvantage, since a reader that reads every type of TIFF file does not exist. TIFFs can be lossy and lossless; some offer relatively good lossless compression for bi-level (black&white) images. Some digital cameras can save in TIFF format, using the LZW compression algorithm for lossless storage. TIFF image format is not widely supported by web browsers. TIFF remains widely accepted as a photograph file standard in the printing business. TIFF can handle device-specific color spaces, such as the CMYK defined by a particular set of printing press inks. OCR (Optical Character Recognition) software packages commonly generate some (often monochromatic) form of TIFF image for scanned text pgs. RAW refers to a family of raw image formats that are options available on some digital cameras. These formats usually use a lossless or nearly-lossless compression, and produce file sizes much smaller than the TIFF formats of full-size processed images from the same cameras. Although there is a standard raw image format, (ISO 12234-2, TIFF/EP), the raw formats used by most cameras are not standardized or documented, and differ among camera manufacturers. Many graphic programs and image editors may not accept some or all of them, and some older ones have been effectively orphaned already. Adobe’s Digital Negative (DNG) specification is an attempt at standardizing a raw image format to be used by cameras, or for archival storage of image data converted from undocumented raw image formats, and is used by several niche and minority camera manufacturers including Pentax, Leica, and Samsung. The raw image formats of more than 230 camera models, including those from manufacturers with the largest market shares such as Canon, Nikon, Sony, and Olympus, can be converted to DNG.[1] DNG was based on ISO 12234-2, TIFF/EP, and ISO’s revision of TIFF/EP is reported to be adding Adobe’s modifications and developments made for DNG into profile 2 of the new version of the standard. As far as videocameras are concerned, ARRI’s Arriflex D-20 and D-21 cameras provide raw 3K-resolution sensor data with Bayern pattern as still images (one per frame) in a proprietary format (.ari file extension). Red Digital Cinema Camera Company, with its Mysterium sensor family of still and video cameras, uses its proprietary raw format called REDCODE (.R3D extension), which stores still as well as audio+video information in one lossy-compressed file. The PNG (Portable Network Graphics) file format was created as the free, open-source successor to the GIF. The PNG file format supports truecolor (16 million colors) while the GIF supports only 256 colors. The PNG file excels when the image has large, uniformly colored areas. The lossless PNG format is best suited for editing pictures, and the lossy formats, like JPG, are best for the final distribution of photographic images, because in this case JPG files are usually smaller than PNG files. The Adam7-interlacing allows an early preview, even when only a small percentage of the image data has been transmitted. PNG provides a patent-free replacement for GIF and can also replace many common uses of TIFF. Indexed-color, grayscale, and truecolor images are supported, plus an optional alpha channel. PNG is designed to work well in online viewing applications like web browsers so it is fully streamable with a progressive display option. PNG is robust, providing both full file integrity checking and simple detection of common transmission errors. Also, PNG can store gamma and chromaticity data for improved color matching on heterogeneous platforms. Some programs do not handle PNG gamma correctly, which can cause the images to be saved or displayed darker than they should be. Animated formats derived from PNG are MNG and APNG. The latter is supported by Mozilla Firefox and Opera and is backwards compatible with PNG. GIF (Graphics Interchange Format) is limited to an 8-bit palette, or 256 colors. This makes the GIF format suitable for storing graphics with relatively few colors such as simple diagrams, shapes, logos and cartoon style images. The GIF format supports animation and is still widely used to provide image animation effects. It also uses a lossless compression that is more effective when large areas have a single color, and ineffective for detailed images or dithered images. The BMP file format (Windows bitmap) handles graphics files within the Microsoft Windows OS. Typically, BMP files are uncompressed, hence they are large; the advantage is their simplicity and wide acceptance in Windows programs. Netpbm format is a family including the portable pixmap file format (PPM), the portable graymap file format (PGM) and the portable bitmap file format (PBM). These are either pure ASCII files or raw binary files with an ASCII header that provide very basic functionality and serve as a lowest-common-denominator for converting pixmap, graymap, or bitmap files between different platforms. Several applications refer to them collectively as PNM format (Portable Any Map). Digital image A digital image is a representation of a two-dimensional image using ones and zeros (binary). Depending on whether or not the image resolution is fixed, it may be of vector or raster type. Without qualifications, the term “digital image” usually refers to raster images also called bitmap images. Raster images have a finite set of digital values, called picture elements or pixels. The digital image contains a fixed number of rows and columns of pixels. Pixels are the smallest individual element in an image, holding quantized values that represent the brightness of a given color at any specific point. Typically, the pixels are stored in computer memory as a raster image or raster map, a two-dimensional array of small integers. These values are often transmitted or stored in a compressed form. Raster images can be created by a variety of input devices and techniques, such as digital cameras, scanners, coordinate-measuring machines, seismographic profiling, airborne radar, and more. They can also be synthesized from arbitrary non-image data, such as mathematical functions or three-dimensional geometric models; the latter being a major sub-area of computer graphics. The field of digital image processing is the study of algorithms for their transformation. Each pixel of a raster image is typically associated to a specific ‘position’ in some 2D region, and has a value consisting of one or more quantities (samples) related to that position. Digital images can be classified according to the number and nature of those samples: * binary * grayscale * color * false-color * multi-spectral * thematic * picture function The term digital image is also applied to data associated to points scattered over a three-dimensional region, such as produced by tomographic equipment. In that case, each datum is called a voxel. Most users come into contact with raster images through digital cameras. Some digital cameras give access to almost all the data captured by the camera, using a raw image format. The Universal Photographic Imaging Guidelines (UPDIG) suggests this format be used when possible since raw files produce the best quality images. These file formats allow the photographer and the processing agent the greatest level of control and accuracy for output. Unfortunately, there is an issue of proprietary information [trade secrets] for some camera makers, but organizations are attempting to influence the manufacturers of them to avail these records publicly. An alternative may be a Digital Negative (DNG) a proprietary Adobe product described as “the public, archival format for digital camera raw data”.[1] Although this format is not yet universally accepted, support for the product is growing and archival confidence is building. The first computer-generated digital images were produced in the early 1960s, alongside development of the space program and in medical research. Projects at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, MIT, Bell Labs and the University of Maryland, among others, used digital images to advance satellite imagery, wirephoto standards conversion, medical imaging, videophone technology, character recognition, and photo enhancement.[3] Rapid advances in digital imaging began with the introduction of microprocessors in the early 1970s, alongside progress in related storage and display technologies. The invention of computerised axial tomography (CAT scanning), using x-rays to produce a digital image of a “slice” through a three-dimensional object, was of great importance to medical diagnostics. As well as origination of digital images, digitization of analog images allowed the enhancement and restoration of archaeolgical artifacts and began to be used in fields as diverse as nuclear medicine, astronomy, law enforcement, defence and industry.[4] Advances in microprocessor technology paved the way for the development and marketing of charge-coupled devices (CCDs) for use in a wide range of image capture devices and gradually displaced the use of analog film and tape in photography and videography towards the end of the 20th century. The computing power necessary to process digital image capture also allowed computer-generated digital images to achieve a level of refinement close to photorealism. Digital single-lens reflex camera Most digital single-lens reflex cameras (digital SLR or DSLR) are digital cameras that use a mechanical mirror system and pentaprism to direct light from the lens to an optical viewfinder on the back of the camera. The basic operation of a DSLR is as follows: for viewing purposes, the mirror reflects the light coming through the attached lens upwards at a 90 degree angle. It is then reflected three times by the roof pentaprism, rectifying it for the photographer’s eye. (Note that the diagram below incorrectly shows a non-roof pentaprism.) During exposure, the mirror assembly swings upward, the aperture narrows (if stopped down, or set smaller than wide open), and a shutter opens, allowing the lens to project light onto the image sensor. A second shutter then covers the sensor, ending the exposure, and the mirror lowers while the shutter resets. The period that the mirror is flipped up is referred to as “viewfinder blackout”. A fast-acting mirror and shutter is preferred so as to not delay an action photo. All of this happens automatically over a period of milliseconds, with cameras designed to do this 3–10 times per second. DSLRs are often preferred by professional still photographers because they allow an accurate preview of framing close to the moment of exposure, and because DSLRs allow the user to choose from a variety of interchangeable lenses. Most DSLRs also have a function that allows accurate preview of depth of field. Many professionals also prefer DSLRs for their larger sensors compared to most compact digitals. DSLRs have sensors which are generally closer in size to the traditional film formats that many current professionals started out using. These large sensors allow for similar depths of field and picture angle to film formats, as well as their comparatively high signal to noise ratio. The term DSLR generally refers to cameras that resemble 35 mm format cameras, although some medium format cameras are technically DSLRs. A camera based on the single-lens reflex (SLR) principle uses a mirror to show in a viewfinder the image that will be captured. The cross-section (side-view) of the optical components of an SLR shows how the light passes through the lens assembly (1), is reflected into the pentaprism by the reflex mirror (which must be at an exact 45 degree angle) (2) and is projected on the matte focusing screen (5). Via a condensing lens (6) and internal reflections in the roof pentaprism (7) the image is projected through the eyepiece (8) to the photographer’s eye. Focusing is either automatic, activated by pressing half-way on the shutter release or a dedicated AF button, as is mainly the case with an autofocusing film SLR; or manual, where the photographer manually focuses the lens by turning a lens ring on the lens barrel. When an image is photographed, the mirror swings upwards in the direction of the arrow, the focal-plane shutter (3) opens, and the image is projected and captured on the sensor (4), after which actions, the shutter closes, the mirror returns to the 45 degree angle, the diaphragm reopens, and the built in drive mechanism re-tensions the shutter for the next exposure. There is often a ring of soft material around the focusing screen, which helps to both cushion the impact of the mirror slapping up and helps seal the mirror box from light entering through the eye piece.[1] Some high end cameras incorporate a shutter into the eyepiece to further eliminate light that may enter there during long exposures. The diagram shown here is an over-simplification in that it omits the sensors used to activate the drive for the autofocus system. Those sensors reside at the bottom of the mirror box. In such a system, the main mirror is slightly translucent in the center, which allows light to pass through it to a secondary mirror which reflects light to the sensors below. DSLRs typically use a phase detection autofocus system. This method of focus is very fast, and results in less focus “searching”, but requires the incorporation of a special sensor into the optical path, so it is usually only used in SLR designs. Digicams that use the main sensor to create a live preview on the LCD or electronic viewfinder must use contrast-detect autofocus instead, which is slower in some implementations. Depending on the viewing position of the reflex mirror (down or up), the light from the scene can only reach either the viewfinder or the sensor. Therefore, many older DSLRs do not provide “live preview” (allowing focusing, framing, and depth-of-field preview using the display), a facility that is always available on digicams although today most DSLRs offer live view. The advantages of an optical viewfinder are that it alleviates eye-strain sometimes caused by electronic view finders (EVF), and that it constantly shows (except during the time for the sensor to be exposed) the exact image that will be exposed because its light is routed directly from the lens itself. Compared to ordinary digital cameras with their LCDs and/or electronic viewfinders the advantage is that there is no time lag in the image; it is always correct as it is being “updated” at the speed of light. This is important for action and/or sports photography, or any other situation where the subject or the camera is moving too quickly. Furthermore, the “resolution” of the viewed image is much better than that provided by an LCD or an electronic viewfinder, which can be important if manual focusing is desired for precise focusing, as would be the case in macro photography and “micro-photography” (with a microscope). Compared to some low cost cameras that provide an optical viewfinder that uses a small auxiliary lens, the DSLR design has the advantage of being parallax-free; that is, it never provides an off-axis view. A disadvantage of the DSLR optical viewfinder system is that while it is used it prevents the possibility of using the LCD for viewing and composing the picture before taking it. Some people prefer to compose pictures on the display – for them this has become the de-facto way to use a camera. Electronic viewfinders may also provide a brighter display in low light situations, as the picture can be electronically amplified; conversely, LCDs can be difficult to see in very bright sunlight. Early DSLRs lacked the ability to show the optical viewfinder’s image on the LCD display, a feature known as live preview. Live preview is useful in situations where the camera’s eye-level viewfinder cannot be used, such as Underwater photography where the camera is enclosed in a plastic waterproof case. Olympus introduced the Olympus E-10 in the summer of 2000, which was the first DSLR with live preview – albeit an atypical design with a fixed lens. In late 2008[update], some DSLRs from Canon, Nikon, Olympus, Panasonic, Leica, Pentax, Samsung and Sony all provide continuous live preview as an option. Additionally, the Fujifilm FinePix S5 Pro[2] offers 30 seconds of live preview. On most DSLRs that offer live preview, the phase detection autofocus system does not work in the live preview mode, and the DSLR switches to a slower contrast system commonly found in point & shoot cameras. Some live preview systems make use of the primary sensor to provide the image on the LCD (which is the way all non-DSLR digicams work), and some systems use a secondary sensor. Possible advantages of using a secondary sensor for live preview is to avoid additional noise that might result from the primary sensor heating up from continuous use and allowing faster auto-focus.[3] A new feature via a separate software package introduced from Breeze Systems in October, 2007, features live view from a distance. The software package is named “DSLR Remote Pro v1.5″ and enables support for the Canon EOS 40D and 1D Mark III. Introduced in 2008, HDSLRs are DSLRs which, in addition to taking still photographs, offer a movie mode capable of recording high definition motion video. This feature parallels the evolution of compact digital cameras, many of which also offer HD movie mode. The first DSLR to shoot HD was the Nikon D90, which captures video at 720p24 (1280×720 resolution at 24 fps) using an APS-sized sensor. The second, Canon EOS 5D Mark II, captured video at 1080p30 (1920×1080 resolution at 30 fps), and in 2010 a firmware update was released that allows 1080p24 (1920×1080 resolution at 24 fps) using a full frame 35mm CMOS sensor. The 720/24p of the Nikon D90 is not a compliant frame rate for high-definition television broadcast, Blu-ray disc mastering[5] or Digital Cinema Initiatives (DCI). The first HDSLR to shoot a standard HD broadcast, Blu-ray and digital cinema format is the Panasonic Lumix GH1 (both 1920×1080/23.976p and 1280×720/59.94p). With the release of the professional Canon 1D Mark IV, the entry level professional Canon 7D and the consumer model Canon 550D (Rebel T2i), there are now four HDSLRs that can shoot in these standard/broadcast compliant resolutions and frame rates, with the Canon EOS 5D Mark II adding 24p and industry compliance with the release of firmware version 2.0.3/2.0.4.[6] Less than a year after the introduction of the first HDSLR, “HD movie mode” was incorporated into entry-level DSLR camera models, the first being the Canon EOS 500D (Rebel T1i) and Nikon D5000. The 500D supports both 720p30 and a limited 1080p mode which captures 20 fps. The D5000′s movie mode is comparable to the D90, with a maximum capture mode of 720p24. These entry-level cameras also use non-standard resolution and frame rate combinations. On 20 May 2009, Pentax announced its K-7 HDSLR. It supports non-broadcast/blu-ray/DCI compliant HD capture at 30 fps, in both 720p resolution, and an unusual non-standard resolution mode of 1536×1024 which matches the 3:2 aspect ratio of the image sensor. Concerning using HDSLR as a video camera, some manufacturers make optional accessories to assist filmmakers feel as using real video/film camera. One of them is External EVF with 1.2 million pixels. Interchangeable lenses for SLRs and DSLRs are built to operate correctly with a specific lens mount that is generally unique to each brand. A photographer will often use lenses made by the same manufacturer as the camera body (for example, Canon EF lenses on a Canon body) although there are also many independent lens manufacturers, such as Sigma, Tamron, Tokina, and Vivitar, to name a few, that make lenses for a variety of different lens mounts. There are also lens adapters that allow a lens for one lens mount to be used on a camera body with a different lens mount but with often reduced functionality. Many lenses are mountable, “diaphragm-and-meter-compatible”, on modern DSLRs and on older film SLRs that use the same lens mount. Most DSLR manufacturers have introduced lines of lenses with image circles and focal lengths optimized for the smaller sensors generally offered for existing 35 mm mount DSLRs, mostly in the wide angle range. These lenses tend not to be completely compatible with full frame sensors or 35 mm film because of the smaller imaging circle[8] and, with some Canon EF-S lenses, interference with the reflex mirrors on full-frame bodies. Several manufacturers produce full-frame digital SLR cameras that allow lenses designed for the 35 mm film frame to operate at their intended angle of view. Image sensors used in DSLRs come in a range of sizes. The very largest are the ones used in “medium format” cameras, typically via a “digital back” which can be used as an alternative to a film back. Because of the manufacturing costs of these large sensors the price of these cameras is typically over $20,000 as of December 2007[update]. With the exception of medium format DSLRs, the largest sensors are referred to as “full-frame” and are the same size as 35 mm film (135 film, image format 24×36 mm); these sensors are used in high-end DSLRs such as the Canon EOS-1Ds Mark III, the Canon EOS 5D Mark II, the Nikon D700, the Nikon D3, the Nikon D3X, the Sony Alpha 850 and the Sony Alpha 900. Most modern DSLRs use a smaller sensor commonly referred to as APS-C sized, that is, approximately 22 mm × 15 mm, a little smaller than the size of an APS-C film frame, or about 40% of the area of a full-frame sensor. Other sensor sizes found in DSLRs include the Four Thirds System sensor at 26% of full frame, APS-H sensors (used, for example, in the Canon EOS-1D Mark III) at around 61% of full frame, and the Foveon X3 sensor at 33% of full frame. The sensors used in current DSLRs are much larger than the sensors found in digicam-style cameras, most of which use sensors known as 1/2.5″, whose area is only 3% of a full frame sensor. Even high-end digicams such as the Canon PowerShot G9/G10/G11 or the Nikon CoolPix P5000/P6000 use sensors that are approximately 5% and 4% of the area of a full frame sensor, respectively. The current exceptions are the Micro Four Thirds system by Olympus and Panasonic, the Sigma DP1, which uses a Foveon X3 sensor, and the Leica X1. Leica offers an “S-System” DSLR with a 30×45mm array containing 37 million pixels.[9] This sensor is 56% larger than a full-frame sensor. There is a connection between sensor size and image quality; in general, a larger sensor provides lower noise, higher sensitivity. The lenses typically used on DSLRs have a wider range of apertures available to them, ranging from as large as f/1.0 to about f/32. Lenses for digicams rarely have true available aperture sizes much larger than f/2.8 or much smaller than f/5.6. The f/5.6 limitation is because lens designs of typical small sensor digicams already produce diffraction blur bigger than a few pixels at f/5.6.[12] Because of digicams’ smaller sensors there are a limited number of apertures available that will produce an acceptably sharp image. Many digicams only have a two-stop range of apertures because at settings outside of these the image will become too soft because of limits of lens design at large apertures, or diffraction at smaller apertures. To help extend the exposure range, some digicams will also incorporate an ND filter pack into the aperture mechanism.[13] The apertures that digicams have available give much more depth of field than equivalent angles of view on a DSLR. For example a 6 mm lens on a 2/3″ sensor digicam has a field of view similar to a 24 mm lens on a 35 mm camera. At an aperture of f/2.8 the digicam (assuming a crop factor of 4) has a similar depth of field to that 35 mm camera set to f/11 – that’s a four-stop difference. Put another way, with both cameras at f/2.8 and focused on a subject 1 meter from the camera, and both cameras zoomed to produce the same angle of view (35 mm camera will need to use larger focal length to produce same angle of view from same distance), the digicam might have a depth of field of 2 meters and the larger camera would have a depth of field of 0.3 meters. The angle of view of a lens depends upon its focal length and the camera’s image sensor size; a sensor smaller than 35 mm film format (36 mm × 24 mm frame) gives a narrower angle of view for a lens of a given focal length than a camera equipped with a full-frame (35 mm) sensor. As of 2008, only a few current DSLRs have full-frame sensors, including the Sony ? 900, Canon EOS-1Ds Mark III, Canon 5D, Nikon D3x and Nikon D700. The scarcity of full-frame DSLRs is partly a result of the cost of such large sensors. Medium format size sensors, such as those used in the Mamiya ZD among others, are even larger than full-frame (35 mm) sensors, and capable of even greater resolution, and are correspondingly more expensive. The impact of sensor size on field of view is referred to as the “crop factor” or “focal length multiplier”, which is a factor by which a lens focal length can be multiplied to give the full-frame-equivalent focal length for a lens. Typical APS-C sensors have crop factors of 1.5 to 1.7, so a lens with a focal length of 50 mm will give a field of view equal to that of a 75 mm to 85 mm lens on a 35 mm camera. The smaller sensors of Four Thirds System cameras have a crop factor of 2.0. While the crop factor of APS-C cameras effectively narrows the angle of view of long-focus (telephoto) lenses, making it easier to take close-up images of distant objects, wide-angle lenses suffer a reduction in their angle of view by the same factor. DSLRs with “crop” sensor size have slightly more depth-of-field than cameras with 35 mm sized sensors for a given angle of view. The amount of added depth of field for a given focal length can be roughly calculated by multiplying the depth of field by the crop factor. Shallower depth of field is often preferred by professionals for portrait work and to isolate a subject from its background. Digital SLR cameras, along with most other digital cameras, generally have a mode dial to access standard camera settings or automatic scene-mode settings. Sometimes called a “PASM” dial, they typically provide as minimum Program, Aperture-priority, Shutter-priority, and full Manual modes. Scene modes vary and are inherently less customizable. They often include full-auto, landscape, portrait, action, macro, and night modes, among others. Professional DSLRs seldom contain automatic scene modes because professionals understand their equipment and can quickly adjust the settings to take the image that they want. The fact that it is possible to change lenses on a DSLR results in the possibility of dust entering the camera body and adhering to the image sensor. This can reduce image quality, and make it necessary to clean the sensor. Various techniques exist including using a cotton swab with various fluids or blowing with compressed air. Some people prefer to clean the sensor themselves and some send the camera in for service. A method to prevent dust entering the chamber, by using a “dust cover” filter right behind the lens mount, was pioneered by Sigma in their first DSLR, the Sigma SD9, in 2002. Olympus pioneered a built-in sensor cleaning facility in their first DSLR that had a sensor exposed to air, the Olympus E-1, in 2003. Other DSLR manufacturers followed suit, and dust reduction systems are becoming common in DSLRs. There is some controversy as to how effective these systems are; see dust reduction system for more information. Many medium format roll-film SLRs can accept a digital camera back to turn the camera into a DSLR with very high image resolution and quality (typically 21–60 megapixels as of July 2009). However, the combination is very expensive and bulky, and more suited to still life than to action photography. Another potential disadvantage of medium format digital backs is that there are none currently available (as of early 2008) that incorporate a low-pass filter (aka optical anti-aliasing filter) except for the Mamiya ZD, which has a removable one. This is done to allow the maximum resolution to be extracted from a given image, but at the cost of moiré. As of 2007[update] integrated medium formats like the Phase One 645 system, Hasselblad H System[20] and Leaf AFi[21] have started to appear. On July 13, 2007, FujiFilm announced the FinePix IS Pro, which uses Nikon F-mount lenses. This camera, in addition to having live preview, has the ability to record in the infrared and ultraviolet spectra of light.[22] In August 2010 Sony released series of DSLRs allowing 3D photography. It was accomplished by sweeping the camera horizontally or vertically in Sweep Panorama 3D mode. The picture could be saved as ultra-wide panoramic image or as 16:9 3D photography to be viewed on BRAVIA 3D television set. On August 25, 1981 Sony unveiled a prototype of the first still video camera, the Sony Mavica. This camera was an analog electronic camera that featured interchangeable lenses and a SLR viewfinder. At Photokina in 1986, Nikon revealed a prototype analog electronic still SLR camera, the Nikon SVC, a precursor to the digital SLR.[25] The prototype body shared many features with the N8008.[25] In 1991, Kodak released the first commercially available digital SLR, the Kodak DCS-100. It consisted of a modified Nikon F3 SLR body, modified drive unit, and an external storage unit connected via cable. The 1.3 megapixel camera cost approximately US$30,000. This was followed by the Kodak DCS-200 with integrated storage.[26] Over the next decade, DSLRs have been released by various companies, including Canon, Nikon, Kodak, Pentax, Olympus, Panasonic, Samsung, Minolta (later Konica Minolta, and whose camera assets were then acquired by Sony), Fujifilm, and Sigma, with higher resolutions and lower prices. In 1999, Nikon announced the Nikon D1, the first DSLR to truly compete with, and begin to replace, film cameras in the professional photojournalism and sports photography fields. This camera was able to use current autofocus Nikkor lenses available at that time for the Nikon film series cameras, and was also able to utilize the older Nikon and similar, independent mount lenses designed for those cameras. A combination of price, speed, and image quality was the beginning of the end of 35 mm film for these markets. In January 2000, Fujifilm announced the FinePix S1 Pro, the first DSLR marketed to non-professionals. In November 2001, Canon released its 4.1 megapixel EOS-1D, the brand’s first professional digital body. In 2003, Canon introduced the 6.3 megapixel EOS 300D SLR camera (known in the United States as the Digital Rebel and in Japan as the Kiss Digital) with an MSRP of US$999, directed at the consumer market. Its popularity encouraged other manufacturers to produce affordable digital SLR cameras, lowering entry costs and allowing more amateur photographers to purchase DSLRs. In 2004 Konica Minolta released Konica Minolta Maxxum 7D, first DSLR with in-body image stabilization[27] which later on become standard in Pentax, Olympus and Sony Alpha cameras. In early 2009 Nikon released D90, first DSLR to feature video recording. Since then all major companies offer cameras with this functionality. In September 2009 Sony released first sub-2000 USD full frame DSLR, the Sony Alpha 850, creating first accessible full frame camera for amateur photographers. Since then the number of megapixels in imaging sensors have increased steadily, with most companies focusing on, high ISO performance, speed of focus, higher frame rates, the elimination of digital ‘noise’ produced by the imaging sensor, and price reductions to lure new customers. As of 2008[update], DSLR sales are dominated by Canon’s and Nikon’s offerings. For 2007, Canon edged out Nikon with 41% of worldwide sales to the latter’s 40%, followed by Sony and Olympus each with approximately 6% market share.[28] In the Japanese domestic market, Nikon captured 43.3% to Canon’s 39.9%, with Pentax a distant third at 6.3%.[29] The duopoly of Canon and Nikon is sometimes referred to as “Canikon” or “Nikanon” in online forums in skeptical challenge to the presumptive acceptance of these manufacturer’s cameras as always “the best”. Nevertheless, Canon and Nikon have used their professional market presence especially persuasively in the sale of entry level offerings. Online contributors often challenge the “Canikon/Nikanon” supposed superiority when they believe there are superior innovations from the smaller DSLR manufacturers. The DSLR market is dominated by Japanese companies, including all of the top five manufacturers (Canon, Nikon, Olympus, Pentax, and Sony), as well as Fujifilm, Mamiya, Panasonic, and Sigma. Leica is German, Hasselblad is Swedish, and Samsung is Korean, while the American company Kodak formerly produced DSLRs as well. Mainstream DSLRs (full-frame or smaller image sensor format) are currently produced by Canon, Fujifilm, Leica, Nikon, Olympus, Panasonic, Pentax, Samsung, Sigma, and Sony. Phase One, Leaf, Linhof, Hasselblad and Mamiya, amongst others, produce expensive, high-end medium-format view-cameras. * Canon’s current 2011 EOS digital line includes the Canon EOS 1100D,[30], 550D, 600D,[30] 60D, 7D, 5D Mark II, 1Ds Mark III, and the 1D Mark IV. As of February 2011[update], all current Canon DSLRs use CMOS sensors. * Fujifilm currently sells the Fujifilm FinePix S5 Pro DSLR, compatible with the Nikon F-mount lens system. It is based on the Nikon D200 camera body, but utilizes Fuji’s sensor technology (Fujifilm SuperCCD SR Pro) and menu system. Fuji previously offered the Fujifilm FinePix IS Pro, which has the unique ability to capture light in the infrared and ultraviolet spectrums. * Nikon also has a broad line of DSLRs currently including the D3100, D5000, D90, D7000, D300S, D700, D3S and the D3X. The D3, announced in August 2007, is the company’s first full-frame digital SLR.[31] * Olympus makes DSLR cameras and lenses as part of the Four Thirds System. Current Olympus models include the E-620, E-30 and E-3. Unique features include a smaller size, an effective sensor dust reduction system, and in-body image stabilization, along with a crop factor of 2 (compared to 1.6 in most DSLR’s) and an aspect ratio of 4:3 (instead of 3:2). Four Thirds lenses are especially highly regarded.[32][33] * Pentax currently offers the Pentax K-5, Pentax K-7, Pentax K-x, Pentax K-r and the medium format Pentax 645D,[34] while Samsung (in collaboration with Pentax) offers the Samsung GX-20, a clone of the K20D. Innovative features include in-body image stabilization, dust reduction system, use of standard AA batteries in the K-x and K-r, weather-proof sealing in the K-5/K-7 (first introduced on the K10D, and otherwise found only in more expensive semi-pro models like the Nikon D200), and adoption of Adobe’s DNG standard raw image format. Also, they offer extensive backwards compatibility, accepting all Pentax K mount lenses made since 1975 (though the automatic light metering functionality of some early lenses does not work). * Sigma produces DSLRs using the Foveon X3 sensor, rather than the conventional Bayer sensor. This is claimed to give higher colour resolution although headline pixel counts are lower than conventional Bayer-sensor cameras. Their current model is the Sigma SD14. Sigma is the only DSLR manufacturer which sells lenses for other brands’ lens mounts. * Currently Sony offer is focused mostly on Entry-level and Midrange cameras, with addition of two professional full-frame DSLRs: ?900 and ?850. Entry level offer is made of two cameras: Sony Alpha 290 without Live View and Sony Alpha 390 with it, and tiltable LCD. Midrange cameras are Sony Alpha 450, cheap, classic DSLR without Quick AF Live View, though bigger viewfinder, Sony Alpha 560 and Sony Alpha 580 featuring video recording, 3D photography and set of more advanced functions, and finally Sony Alpha 33 and Sony Alpha 55 featuring full time phase detection autofocus during video recording as well as continious shooting of up to 10 fps. The ? series offers in-body sensor-shift image stabilization and retains the Minolta AF lens mount. * Hasselblad, Linhof, Leaf, Mamiya and Phase One, amongst others, produce medium format-sized (6×4.5 cm., 6x6cm.) view-cameras, which produce high resolution digital images. Their sensors (over 60 megapixel in some cases) are able to capture much more detail than the full-frame and smaller sensors found in DSLR cameras.